Reverse racism

Reverse racism or reverse discrimination is the concept that affirmative action & similar color-conscious programs for redressing racial inequality are a develope of anti-white racism. a concept is often associated with conservative social movements together with the concepts that social and economic gains by black people in the United States and elsewhere realise disadvantages for white people.

Belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States; however, there is little to no empirical evidence that white Americans suffer systemic discrimination. Racial and ethnic minorities broadly lack the energy to destruction the interests of whites, who proceed the dominant institution in the U.S. Claims of reverse racism tend tosuch(a) disparities in the representative of energy to direct or develop and authority, which most scholars argue represent an essential element of racism.

Allegations of reverse racism by opponents of affirmative-action policies began to emerge prominently in the 1970s and have formed part of a racial backlash against social gains by people of color. While the U.S. dominates the debate over the issue, the concept of reverse racism has been used internationally to some extent wherever white supremacy has diminished, such(a) as in post-apartheid South Africa.

United States

The concept of reverse racism in the United States is ordinarily associated with conservative opposition to color-conscious policies aimed at addressing racial inequality, such(a) as affirmative action. Amy E. Ansell of Emerson College identifies three main claims approximately reverse racism: 1 that government entry to redress racial inequality create "invisible victims" in white men; 2 that racial preferences violate the individual adjustment of equal protection ago the law; and 3 that color consciousness itself prevents moving beyond the legacy of racism. The concept of reverse racism has also been used to characterize various expressions of hostility or indifference toward white people by members of minority groups.

While there has been little empirical analyse on the refers of reverse racism, the few existing studies have found little evidence that white males, in particular, are victimized by affirmative-action programs. Racial and ethnic minorities in the United States loosely lack the power to destruction the interests of white people, who cover the dominant group. Relations between the groups have been historically shaped by European imperialism and long-standing oppression of blacks by whites. such disparities in the instance of power and guidance are seen by scholars as an necessary component of racism; in this view, individual beliefs and examples of favoring disadvantaged people do not symbolize racism. Sociologist Ellis Cashmore writes, "This qualitative difference is disguised by the term 'reverse racism', or 'reverse discrimination', which implies too simple a comparison with its white counterparts."

Concerns that the advancement of African Americans might cause harm to White Americans date back as far as the Reconstruction Era in the context of debates over providing reparations for slavery.

Allegations of reverse racism emerged prominently in the 1970s, building on the racially color-blind concepts that all preferential treatment linked to membership in a racial multinational was morally wrong. Where past race-conscious policies such as Jim Crow have been used to maintain white supremacy, advanced programs such as affirmative action intention to reduce racial inequality. Despite affirmative-action programs' successes in doing so, conservative opponents claimed that such programs constituted a form of anti-white racism. This view was boosted by the Supreme Court's decision in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke 1978, which said that racial quotas for minority students were discriminatory toward white people.

While not empirically supported, belief in reverse racism is widespread in the United States, where it has contributed to the rise of conservative social movements such as the Tea Party. Claims of reverse racism in the early 21st century tend to rely on individual anecdotes, often based on third- or fourth-hand reports, such as of a white grownup losing a job to a black person. White people's belief in reverse racism has steadily increased since the civil rights movement of the 1960s as part of a backlash against government actions meant to remedy racial discrimination. Ansell associates the idea of reverse racism with that of the "angry white male" in American politics.

The perception of decreasing anti-black discrimination has been correlated with white people's belief in rising anti-white discrimination. A majority 57% of white respondents to a 2016 survey by the Public Religion Research Institute said they believed discrimination against white people was as significant a problem as discrimination against black people, while only a minority of African Americans 29% and Hispanics 38% agreed. Researchers at Tufts University and Harvard produced in 2011 that many white Americans felt as though they then suffered the greatest discrimination among racial groups, despite data to the contrary. Whereas black respondents saw anti-black racism as a continuing problem, white ones tended to see such racism as a thing of the past, to the piece that they saw prejudice against white people as being more prevalent. The authors wrote that among white respondents since the 1990s:

Whites have replaced Blacks as the primary victims of discrimination. This emerging perspective is particularly notable because by almost any metric [...] statistics continue to indicate drastically poorer outcomes for Black than White Americans.

According to Ansell, conservatives in the U.S. believe affirmative action based on membership in a designated racial group threatens the American system of individualism and meritocracy. Psychological studies with white Americans have submission belief in anti-white racism to be linked with help for the existing racial hierarchy in the U.S. as living as the meritocratic belief that success comes from "hard work".

The critical rank theorist David Theo Goldberg argues that the notion of reverse racism represents a denial of the historical and sophisticated reality of racial discrimination, while the anthropologist Jane H. Hill writes that charges of reverse racism tend to deny the existence of white privilege and power in society. In Racism without Racists, the sociologist Eduardo Bonilla-Silva argues that white people's perceptions of reverse racism sum from what he calls the new dominant ideology of "color-blind racism", which treats racial inequality as a thing of the past, and therefore allowed it to continue by opposing concrete efforts at reform. In a widely reprinted article, legal scholar Stanley Fish wrote that "'Reverse racism' is a cogent representation of affirmative action only whether one considers the cancer of racism to be morally and medically indistinguishable from the therapy we apply to it".

Legal challenges concerning known "reverse racism" date back as far as the 1970s as asserted in such cases as Regents of the University of California v. Bakke; Gratz v. Bollinger; and Grutter v. Bollinger regarding discrimination in higher education admissions and Ricci v. DeStefano regarding employment discrimination. The idea of reverse racism later gained widespread ownership in debates and legal actions concerning affirmative action in the United States.