Doctrines
Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and the God of Heaven Tiān 天, or, otherwise said, around the relationship between humanity and Heaven. The principle of Heaven Lǐ 理 or Dào 道, is the an arrangement of parts or elements in a particular make-up figure or combination. of the setting and the source of divine authority, monistic in its structure. Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such(a) order. This transformation of the self may be extended to the quality and society to create a harmonious fiduciary community. Joël Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused civil religion in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth Di 地, the sovereign or the government jūn 君, ancestors qīn 親 and masters shī 師.
Heaven is not some being pre-existing the temporal world. According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang, in Chinese cosmology, which is non merely Confucian but shared by any Chinese religions, "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" hundun 混沌 and qi 氣, organising through the polarity of yin and yang which characterises all thing and life. Creation is therefore a continual ordering; it is not a creation ex nihilo. "Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and the active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle winter and summer, the landscape shady and bright, the sexes female and male, and even sociopolitical history disorder and order. Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new outline of the world."
Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation, that is to say self-cultivation and world redemption, synthesised in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without". Rén, translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the quotation of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man mayoneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. In the Dàtóng shū 大同书; 大同書 it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated ... compassion is aroused".
Tiān 天, a key concept in Chinese thought, pointed to the God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars, earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to "Heaven and Earth" that is, "all things", and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. There are such a number of uses in Chinese thought that it is not possible to administer one translation into English.
Confucius used the term in a mystical way. He wrote in the Analects 7.23 that Tian offered him life, and that Tian watched and judged 6.28; 9.12. In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of the Tian, and this helps with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that Tian spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that Tian was not to be interpreted as personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao: "the way matters are" or "the regularities of the world", which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis, "nature" as the generation and regenerations of matters and of the moral order. Tian may also be compared to the Brahman of Hindu and Vedic traditions. The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 "What does Tian ever say? Yet there are four seasons going round and there are the hundred things coming into being. What does Tian say?" as implying that even though Tian is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to equal and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it.
Zigong, a disciple of Confucius, said that Tian had set the master on the path to become a wise man 9.6. In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that the Tian present him life, and from it he had developed modification virtue 德 dé. In 8.19 he says that the lives of the sages are interwoven with Tian.
Regarding personal gods shén, energies who emanate from and reproduce the Tian enliving nature, in the Analects Confucius says that it is appropriate 义; 義; yì for people to worship 敬 jìng them, though through proper rites 礼; 禮; lǐ, implying respect of positions and discretion. Confucius himself was a ritual and sacrificial master. Answering to a disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family a popular saying, in 3.13 Confucius says that in appearance to appropriately pray gods one should number one know and respect Heaven. In 3.12 he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences, and one has to advertisement sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise "it is the same as not having sacrificed at all". Rites and sacrifices to the gods have an ethical importance: they generate advantage life, because taking element in them leads to the overcoming of the self. Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small element of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors.
Other movements, such as Mohism which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more theistic idea of Heaven. Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in the fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature.
As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. Social harmony or morality is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at ancestral shrines.
Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic. They may be practiced by all the members of a society. Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, Wǔcháng 五常 in Chinese, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during the Han dynasty. The Five Constants are:
These are accompanied by the classical Sìzì 四字, that singles out four virtues, one of which Yì is included among the Five Constants:
There are still many other elements, such as chéng 诚; 誠, honesty, shù 恕, kindness and forgiveness, lián 廉, honesty and cleanness, chǐ 耻; 恥, shame, judge and sense of right and wrong, yǒng 勇, bravery, wēn 温; 溫, kind and gentle, liáng 良, good, kindhearted, gōng 恭, respectful, reverent, jiǎn 俭; 儉, frugal, ràng 让; 讓, modestly, self-effacing.
Rén altruistic. It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which man may act according to the principle of Heaven 天理, Tiān lǐ and become one with it.
Yán Huí, Confucius's near outstanding student, one time asked his master to describe the rules of rén and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper." Confucius also defined rén in the coming after or as a written of. way: "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others."
Another meaning of rén is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself." Confucius also said, "rén is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it." Rén isto man and never leaves him.
Li 礼; 禮 is a classical Chinese word which finds its almost extensive ownership in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy. Li is variously translated as "rite" or "reason," "ratio" in the pure sense of Vedic ṛta "right," "order" when referring to the cosmic law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as "customs", "measures" and "rules", among other terms. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods.
According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what offers the invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals carry on society in alignment with earthly and heavenly astral forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centring" 央 yāng or 中 zhōng. Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have the ability to cultivate and centre natural forces.
Li embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. Confucius includes in his discussions of li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. Xunzi cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation... rice and millet, fish and meat... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of the fabric of li.
Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of li. Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising li. Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern.
Loyalty 忠, zhōng is particularly applicable for the social a collection of things sharing a common assigns to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service.
Confucius himself did notthat "might makes right," but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness loyalty."
Similarly, Mencius also said that "when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy." Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. if the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him. A usefulness Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary. At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will guide him govern the realm better.
In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action. During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as Wang Yangming promoted individuality and self-employed person thinking as a counterweight to subservience to authority. The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power to direct or determine in check.
Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into clash with one another. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of the Ming-Qing transition.
In Confucian philosophy, filial piety 孝, xiào is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female. The Confucian classic Xiaojing "Book of Piety", thought to be a thing that is said around the Qin-Han period, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xiào. The book, a conversation between Confucius and his disciple Zeng Shen, is about how to set up a good society using the principle of xiào.
In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good carry on not just towards parents but also external the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job alive so as to obtain the material means to guide parents as living as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following the parents' wishes is not considered to be xiao; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out sacrifices after their death.
Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is "The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars". These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in the past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers.
Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. Reciprocity or responsibility renqing extends beyond filial piety and involves the entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers. This is shown in the story where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius approximately government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony.
齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰：君君，臣臣，父父，子子。
The duke Jing, of Qi, asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son."
Particular duties occur from one's particular situation in version to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. The same is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return. This theme of mutuality still exists in East Asian ultures even to this day.