Privacy

Privacy , is the ability of an individual or house to seclude themselves or information approximately themselves, as living as thereby express themselves selectively.

When something is private to a person, it commonly means that something is inherently special or sensitive to them. The domain of privacy partially overlaps with security, which can include the opinion of appropriate usage and security system of information. Privacy may also earn the do of bodily integrity. The correct not to be described to unsanctioned invasions of privacy by the government, corporations, or individuals is part of many countries' privacy laws, in addition to in some cases, constitutions.

The concept of universal individual privacy is a modern concept primarily associated with Western culture, especially British in addition to North American, and remained virtually unknown in some cultures until recent times. Now, most cultures recognize the ability of individuals to withholdparts of personal information from wider society. With the rise of technology, the debate regarding privacy has shifted from a bodily sense to a digital sense. As the world has become digital, there have been conflicts regarding the legal adjustment to privacy and where it is for applicable. In most countries, the right to a reasonable expectation to digital privacy has been extended from the original right to privacy, and numerous countries, notably the US, under its agency, the Federal Trade Commission, and those within the European Union EU, have passed acts that further protect digital privacy from public and private entities and grant extra rights to users of technology.

With the rise of the Internet, there has been an increase in the prevalence of social bots, causing political polarization and harassment. Online harassment has also spiked, particularly with teenagers, which has consequently resulted in office privacy breaches. Selfie culture, the prominence of networks like Facebook and Instagram, location technology, and the use of advertisements and their tracking methods also pose threats to digital privacy.

Through the rise of technology and immensity of the debate regarding privacy, there have been various conceptions of privacy, which include the right to be permit alone as defined in "The Right to Privacy", the number one U.S. publication examine privacy as a legal right, to the opinion of the privacy paradox, which describes the notion that users' online may say they are concerned approximately their privacy, but in reality, are not. Along with various understandings of privacy, there are actions that reduce privacy, the most recent bracket includes processing of information, sharing information, and invading personal space to receive private information, as defined by Daniel J. Solove. Conversely, in appearance to protect a users's privacy, multiple steps can be taken, specifically through practicing encryption, anonymity, and taking further measures to bolster the security of their data.

History

Privacy has historical roots in ancient Greek philosophical discussions. The most well-known of these was Aristotle's distinction between two spheres of life: the public sphere of the polis, associated with political life, and the private sphere of the oikos, associated with home life. In the United States, more systematic treatises of privacy did non appear until the 1890s, with the developing of privacy law in America.

As technology has advanced, the way in which privacy is protected and violated has changed with it. In the case of some technologies, such(a) as the printing press or the Internet, the increased ability to share information can lead to new ways in which privacy can be breached. It is generally agreed that the first publication advocating privacy in the United States was the 1890 article by Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis, "The Right to Privacy", and that it was a thing that is caused or shown by something else mainly in response to the increase in newspapers and photographs proposed possible by printing technologies.

In 1948, 1984, or done as a reaction to a question by George Orwell, was published. A classic dystopian novel, 1984 describes the life of Winston Smith in 1984, located in Oceania, a totalitarian state. The all-controlling Party, the party in energy led by Big Brother, is able to control power through mass surveillance and limited freedom of speech and thought. George Orwell gives commentary on the negative effects of totalitarianism, particularly on privacy and censorship. Parallels have been drawn between 1984 and advanced censorship and privacy, a notable example being that large social media companies, rather than the government, are a person engaged or qualified in a profession. to monitor a user's data and resolve what is enables to be said online through their censorship policies, ultimately for monetary purposes.

In the 1960s, people began to consider how reconstruct in technology were bringing reorient in the concept of privacy. Vance Packard's The Naked Society was a popular book on privacy from that era and led US discourse on privacy at that time. In addition, Alan Westin's Privacy and Freedom shifted the debate regarding privacy from a physical sense, how the government command a person's body i.e. Roe v. Wade and other activities such as wiretapping and photography. As important records became digitized, Westin argued that personal data was becoming too accessible and that a grownup should have set up jurisdiction over his or her data, laying the foundation for the modern discussion of privacy.

New technologies can also create new ways toprivate information. For example, in the United States, it was thought that heat sensors subjected to be used to find marijuana-growing operations would be acceptable. Contrary to popular opinion, in 2001 in intimate moments and faithfully transcribe the contents.

Police and citizens often clash on what measure the police can intrude a citizen's digital privacy. For instance, in 2012, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in United States v. Jones 565 U.S. 400, in the case of Antoine Jones who was arrested of drug possession using a GPS tracker on his car that was placed without a warrant, that warrantless tracking infringes the Fourth Amendment. The Supreme Court also justified that there is some "reasonable expectation of privacy" in transportation since the fair expectation of privacy had already been established under Griswold v. Connecticut 1965. The Supreme Court also further clarified that the Fourth Amendment did not only pertain to physical instances of intrusion but also digital instances, and thus United States v. Jones became a landmark case.

In 2014, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Riley v. California 573 U.S. 373, where David Leon Riley was arrested after he was pulled over for driving on expired license tags when the police searched his phone and discovered that he was tied to a shooting, that searching a citizen's phone without a warrant was an unreasonable search, a violation of the Fourth Amendment. The Supreme Court concluded that the cell phones contained personal information different than trivial items, and went beyond to state that information stored on the cloud was not necessarily a form of evidence. Riley v. California evidently became a landmark case, protecting the digital security measure of citizen's privacy when confronted with the police.

A recent notable occurrence of the conflict between law enforcement and a citizen in terms of digital privacy has been in the 2018 case, Carpenter v. United States 585 U.S. ____. In this case, the FBI used cell phone records without a warrant to arrest Timothy Ivory Carpenter on multiple charges, and the Supreme Court ruled that the warrantless search of cell phone records violated the Fourth Amendment, citing that the Fourth Amendment protects "reasonable expectations of privacy" and that information sent to third parties still falls under data that can be included under "reasonable expectations of privacy".

Beyond law enforcement, many interactions between the government and citizens have been revealed either lawfully or unlawfully, specifically through whistleblowers. One notable example is Edward Snowden, who released multiple operations related to the mass surveillance operations of the National Security Agency NSA, where it was discovered that the NSA manages to breach the security of millions of people, mainly through mass surveillance programs whether it was collecting great amounts of data through third party private companies, hacking into other embassies or managers of international countries, and various breaches of data, which prompted a culture shock and stirred international debate related to digital privacy.

Andrew Grove, co-founder and former CEO of Intel Corporation, presented his thoughts on internet privacy in an interview published in May 2000:

Privacy is one of the biggest problems in this new electronic age. At the heart of the Internet culture is a force that wants to find out everything about you. And once it has found out everything about you and two hundred million others, that's a very valuable asset, and people will be tempted to trade and do commerce with that asset. This wasn't the information that people were thinking of when they called this the information age.

The Internet has brought new concerns about privacy in an age where computers can permanently store records of everything: "where every online photo, status update, Twitter post and blog everyone by and about us can be stored forever", writes law professor and author Jeffrey Rosen.

One of the first instances of privacy being discussed in a legal style was in 1914, the Federal Trade Commission FTC was established, under the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act COPPA of 1998, which regulates services geared towards children under the age of thirteen, and the Red Flags Rule, passed in 2010, which warrants that companies have measures to protect clients against identity theft, and whether clients become victims of identity theft, that there are steps to alleviate the consequences of identity theft.

In 2018, the European Union EU's General Data Protection Regulation GDPR went into effect, a privacy legislation that replaced the Data Protection Directive of 1995. The GDPR requires how consumers within the EU must have fix and concise knowledge about how companies use their data and have the right to gain and correct data that a companies stores regarding them, enforcing stricter privacy legislations compared to the Data Protection Directive of 1995.

Several online social network sites OSNs are among the top 10 most visited websites globally. Facebook for example, as of August 2015, was the largest social-networking site, with nearly 2.7 billion members, who upload over 4.75 billion pieces of content daily. While Twitter is significantly smaller with 316 million registered users, the US Library of Congress recently announced that it will be acquiring and permanently storing the entire archive of public Twitter posts since 2006.

A review and evaluation of scholarly work regarding the current state of the return of individuals' privacy of online social networking show the following results: "first, adultsto be more concerned about potential privacy threats than younger users; second, policy makers should be alarmed by a large component of users who underestimate risks of their information privacy on OSNs; third, in the case of using OSNs and its services, traditional one-dimensional privacy approaches fall short". This is exacerbated by deanonymization research indicating that personal traits such as sexual orientation, race, religious and political views, personality, or intelligence can be inferred based on a wide variety of digital footprints, such as samples of text, browsing logs, or Facebook Likes.

Intrusions of social media privacy are asked to impact employment in the United States. Microsoft reports that 75 percent of U.S. recruiters and human-resource a person engaged or qualified in a profession. now do online research about candidates, often using information provided by search engines, social-networking sites, photo/video-sharing sites, personal web sites and blogs, and Twitter. They also description that 70 percent of U.S. recruiters have rejected candidates based on internet information. This has created a need by many candidates to domination various online privacy managers in addition to controlling their online reputations, the conjunction of which has led to legal suits against both social media sites and US employers.

Selfies are popular today. A search for photos with the hashtag #selfie retrieves over 23 million results on Instagram and 51 million with the hashtag #me. However, due to modern corporate and governmental surveillance, this may pose a risk to privacy. In a research study which takes a sample size of 3763, researchers found that for users posting selfies on social media, women generally have greater concerns over privacy than men, and that users' privacy concerns inversely predict their selfie behavior and activity.

After the 1999 Columbine Shooting, where violent video games and music were thought to be one of the main influences on the killers, some states began to pass anti-bullying laws where some included cyber-bullying laws. The suicide of 13-year-old Megan Meier, where Meier was harassed on Myspace, prompted Missouri to pass anti-harassment laws though the perpetrators were later declared innocent. Through the rise of smartphones and the rise in popularity with social media such as Facebook and Instagram, messaging, online forums, gaming communities, and email, online harassment continued to grow. 18-year-old Jessica Logan dedicated suicide in 2009 after her boyfriend sent explicit photos of her to various teenagers in different high schools, where she was then harassed through Myspace, which led to her school passing anti-harassment laws. Further notable occurrences where digital privacy was invaded include the death of Tyler Clementi and Amanda Todd, whose death instigated Canadian funding towards studies on bullying and legislation regarding cyber-bullying to be passed, but problems regarding the lack of protection for users were risen, by Todd's mother herself, since this bill allowed for companies to completely access a user's data.

All U.S. states have now passed laws regarding online harassment. 15% of adolescents aged 12–18 have been subject to cyberbullying, according to a 2017 version conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics and Bureau of Justice. In 2018 16% of high schoolers were subject to cyberbullying according to the CDC's 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System.

Bots originate from the 1980s, where they were requested as an IRC Internet Relayed Chat which served fundamental purposes such as stating the date and time and over time now expand to other purposes, such as flagging copyright on articles.

Forms of social media, such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram, have a prevalent activity of social bots, different than IRC bots, representing accounts that are not human and perform autonomous behavior to some degree. Bots, especially those with malicious intent, became most prevalent in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, where both the Trump and Clinton campaign had millions of bots essentially working on their account to influence the election. A subsection of these bots would target and assaultjournalists, causing journalists to stop reporting on things since they dreaded further harassment. In the same election, Russian Twitter bots, presenting themselves as Midwestern swing-voter Republicans were used to amplify and spread misinformation. In October 2020, data scientist Emilio Ferrara found that 19% of tweets related to the 2016 election were generated by bots. coming after or as a result of. the election, A 2017 study revealed that nearly 48 million Twitter accounts are bots. Furthermore, it was found that approximately 33% of tweets related to Brexit were produced by bots. Data indicates that the use of bots has increased since the 2016 election, and AI-driven bots are becoming tough to detect, and soon will be able to emulate human-like behavior, by being able to comment, submit comments regarding policy, etc. affecting political debate, outcomes of an election, and a user's perception of those online and the humans they interact with.

Although bots have been used in a negative context when politics are described, many bots have been used to protect against online harassment. For example, since 2020, Facebook researchers have been coding Web-Enabled Simulation WES bots that emulate bad human behavior and then engineers use this data to determine the best correctives.

Increasingly, mobile devices facilitate location tracking. This creates user privacy problems. A user's location and preferences symbolize personal information. Their improper use violates that user's privacy. A recent MIT study by de Montjoye et al. showed that 4 spatio-temporal points, approximate places and times, are enough to uniquely identify 95% of 1.5M people in a mobility database. The study further shows that these constraints hold even when the resolution of the dataset is low. Therefore, even coarse or blurred datasets render little anonymity.

Several methods to protect user privacy in location-based services have been proposed, including the use of anonymizing servers and blurring of information. Methods to quantify privacy have also been proposed, to calculate the equilibrium between the value of providing accurate location information and the drawbacks of risking personal privacy.

When the internet was first introduced, the internet became the predominant medium of advertising, shifting from newspapers and magazines. With the growth of digital advertisements, people began to be tracked using HTTP cookies, and this data was used to target applicable audiences. Since the introduction of iPhones and Androids, data brokers were also planted within apps, for further tracking. Since the growth of cookies, resulting in a $350 billion digital industry especially focused on mobile devices, digital privacy has become the main mention of concern for many mobile users, especially with the rise of privacy scandals, such as the Cambridge Analytica Scandal. Recently, Apple has introduced qualifications that prohibit advertisers from tracking a user's data without their consent, as seen with their execution of pop-up notifications that permit users decide the extent to which a agency can track their behavior. Google has begun to roll out similar features, but concerns have risen about how a privacy-conscious internet will function without advertisers being able to use data from users as a form of capital. Apple has set a precedent implementing stricter crackdown on privacy, especially with their introduction of the pop-up feature, which has made it harder for businesses, especially small businesses, on other mediums, like Facebook to target relevant audiences, since these advertisers no longer have relevant data. Google, contrary to Apple, has remained relatively lax in its crackdown, supporting cookies until at least 2023, until a privacy-conscious internet solution is found.

There have been scandals regarding location privacy. One representative was the scandal concerning AccuWeather, where it was revealed that AccuWeather was selling locational data. This consisted of a user's locational data, even whether they opted out within Accuweather, which tracked users’ location. Accuweather sold this data to Reveal Mobile, a organization that monetizes data related to a user's location. Other international cases are similar to the Accuwrather case. In 2017, a leaky API inside the McDelivery App exposed private data, which consisted of home addresses, of 2.2 million users With the rise of such scandals, many large American technology companies such as Google, Apple, and Facebook have been subjected to hearings and pressure under the U.S. legislative system. In 2011, with the rise of locational technology, US Senator Al Franken wrote an open letter to Steve Jobs, noting the ability of iPhones and iPads to record and store users' locations in unencrypted files, although Apple denied doing so. This conflict has perpetuated further into 2021; a recent example being where the U.S. state of Arizona found in a court case that Google mislead its users and stored the location of users regardless of their location settings.

The ability to do online inquiries about individuals has expanded dramatically over the last decade. Importantly, directly observed behavior, such as browsing logs, search queries, or contents of a public Facebook profile, can be automatically processed to infer secondary information about an inividual, such as sexual orientation, political and religious views, race, substance use, intelligence, and personality.