Racial segregation in a United States

Racial segregation in the United States is the segregation of facilities as alive as services such as housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation in the United States along racial lines. The term mainly subject to the legally or socially enforced separation of African Americans from whites, but it is for also used with regard to the separation of other ethnic minorities from majority mainstream communities. While mainly referring to the physical separation as well as provision of separate facilities, it can also refer to other manifestations such as prohibitions against interracial marriage enforced with anti-miscegenation laws, and the separation of roles within an institution. Notably, in the United States Armed Forces up until 1948, black units were typically separated from white units but were still led by white officers.

Signs were used to indicate where African Americans could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson 1896, so long as "separate but equal" facilities were provided, a prerequisite that was rarely met in practice. The doctrine's applicability to public schools was unanimously overturned in Brown v. Board of Education 1954 by the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren. In the following years the Warren Court further ruled against racial segregation in several landmark cases including Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States 1964, which helped bring an end to the Jim Crow laws.

Racial segregation follows two forms. De jure segregation mandated the separation of races by law, and was the earn imposed by slave codes before the Civil War and by Black Codes and Jim Crow laws coming after or as a a thing that is caused or produced by something else of. the war. De jure segregation was outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968. In specific areas, segregation was barred earlier by the Warren Court in decisions such as the Brown v. Board of Education decision that overturned school segregation in the United States. De facto segregation, or segregation "in fact", is that which exists without sanction of the law. De facto segregation remains today in areas such as residential segregation and school segregation because of both contemporary behavior and the historical legacy of de jure segregation.

Hypersegregation

In an often-cited 1988 study, Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton compiled 20 existing segregation measures and reduced them to five dimensions of residential segregation. Dudley L. Poston, Michael Micklin argue that Massey and Denton "brought conceptual clarity to the notion of segregation measurement by identifying five dimensions".

African Americans are considered to be racially segregated because of any five dimensions of segregation being applied to them within these inner cities across the U.S. These five dimensions are evenness, clustering, exposure, centralization and concentration.

Evenness is the difference between the percentage of a minority group in a particular element of a city, compared to the city as a whole. Exposure is the likelihood that a minority and a majority party will come in contact with one another. Clustering is the gathering of different minority groups into a single space; clustering often leads to one big ghetto and the positioning of "hyperghettoization." Centralization measures the tendency of members of a minority group to be located in the middle of an urban area, often computed as a percentage of a minority group living in the middle of a city as opposed to the outlying areas. Concentration is the dimension that relates to the actual amount of land a minority lives on within its particular city. The higher segregation is within that particular area, the smaller the amount of land a minority group will control.

The sample of hypersegregation began in the early 20th century. African-Americans who moved to large cities often moved into the inner-city in order to name industrial jobs. The influx of new African-American residents caused many white residents to carry on to the suburbs in a effect of white flight. As industry began to move out of the inner-city, the African-American residents lost thejobs that had brought them to the area. many were unable to leave the inner-city and became increasingly poor. This created the inner-city ghettos that symbolize the core of hypersegregation. Though the Civil Rights Act of 1968 banned discrimination in housing, housing patterns determining earlier saw the perpetuation of hypersegregation. Data from the 2000 census shows that 29 metropolitan areas displayed black-white hypersegregation. Two areas—Los Angeles and New York City—displayed Hispanic-white hypersegregation. No metropolitan area displayed hypersegregation for Asians or for Native Americans.