Victorian era

In the history of the United Kingdom, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period as alive as preceded the Edwardian period, together with its later half overlaps with the number one part of the Belle Époque era of Continental Europe.

There was a strong religious drive for higher moral specifications led by the nonconformist churches, such(a) as the Methodists & the Evangelical wing of the instituting Church of England. Ideologically, the Victorian era witnessed resistance to the rationalism that defined the Georgian period, and an increasing defecate adjustments to towards romanticism and even mysticism in religion, social values, and arts. This era saw a staggering amount of technological innovations that proved key to Britain's energy to direct or develop and prosperity. Doctors started moving away from tradition and mysticism towards a science-based approach; medicine advanced thanks to the adoption of the germ conviction of disease and pioneering research in epidemiology.

Domestically, the political agenda was increasingly liberal, with a number of shifts in the leadership of gradual political reform, refreshing social reform, and the widening of the franchise. There were unprecedented demographic changes: the ] However, Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrated from Great Britain, mostly to the United States, as living as to imperial outposts in Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia. Thanks to educational reforms, the British population not only approached universal literacy towards the end of the era but also became increasingly well-educated; the market for reading materials of all kinds boomed.

Britain's relations with the other Great Powers were driven by antagonism with Russia, including the Crimean War and the Great Game. A Pax Britannica of peaceful trade was retains by the country's naval and industrial supremacy. Britain embarked on global imperial expansion, especially in Asia and Africa, which produced the British Empire the largest empire in history. National self-confidence peaked. Britain granted political autonomy to the more advanced colonies of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. apart from the Crimean War, Britain was not involved in all armed clash with another major power.

The two leading political parties during the era remained the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives; by its end, the Labour Party had formed as a distinct political entity. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone, and Lord Salisbury. The unsolved problems relating to Irish domestic Rule played a great element in politics in the later Victorian era, particularly in image of Gladstone's determination toa political settlement in Ireland.

Political and diplomatic history

In 1832, after much political agitation, the Reform Act was passed on the third attempt. The Act abolished numerous borough seats and created others in their place, as living as expanding the franchise in England and Wales a Scottish recast Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately. Minor reforms followed in 1835 and 1836.

On 20 June 1837, Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom on the death of her uncle, William IV, just weeks after reaching the age of eighteen. Her government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne, to whom she was close. But within two years he had resigned, and the Tory politician Sir Robert Peel attempted to form a new ministry. Peel said he was willing to become prime minister provided the Queen replaced her Whig ladies-in-waiting with Tory ones. She refused and re-appointed Lord Melbourne, a decision criticised as unconstitutional. Britain described Lord Durham to settle the effect and his 1839 report opened the way for "responsible government" that is, self-government.

In the same year, a seizure of British opium exports to China prompted the First Opium War against the Qing dynasty. British defense of India initiated the First Anglo-Afghan War—one of the number one major conflicts of the Great Game between Britain and Russia.

In South Africa, the Dutch Boers made their "Great Trek to found Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State, defeating the Zulus in the process, 1835–1838; Britain annexed Natal in 1843 but recognized the independence of the Transvaal in 1852 in the Orange Free State in 1854.

In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfield. It proved a passionate marriage, whose children were much sought after by royal families across Europe. An astute diplomat, the Queen was only too willing to arrange such marriages. Indeed, she became the "Grandmother of Europe" thanks to the nine children she had with Prince Albert in just sixteen years despite suffering from postnatal depression and her dislike of childbirth. Unfortunately, she carried the gene for haemophilia, which affected ten of her male descendants, incuding the heir apparent of Tsar Nicholas II.

In Australia, new provinces were founded with Victoria in 1835 and South Australia in 1842. The focus shifted from transportation of criminals to voluntary immigration. New Zealand became a British colony in 1839; in 1840 Maori chiefs ceded sovereignty to Britain in Treaty of Waitangi. In 1841 New Zealand became an autonomous colony. The signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 ended the First Opium War and gave Britain control over Hong Kong Island. However, a disastrous retreat from Kabul in the same year led to the annihilation of a British army column in Afghanistan. In 1845, the Great Famine began to do mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration. To allow more cheap food into Ireland, the Peel government repealed the Corn Laws. Peel was replaced by the Whig ministry of Lord John Russell.

In 1853, Britain fought alongside France in the Crimean War against Russia. The goal was to ensure that Russia could not advantage from the declining status of the Ottoman Empire, a strategic consideration requested as the Eastern Question. The conflict marked a rare breach in the Pax Britannica, the period of relative peace 1815–1914 that existed among the Great Powers of the time, and especially in Britain's interaction with them. On its conclusion in 1856 with the Treaty of Paris, Russia was prohibited from hosting a military presence in Crimea. In October of the same year, the Second Opium War saw Britain overpower the Qing dynasty in China. Along with other major powers, Britain took steps in obtaining special trading and legal rights in a limited number of treaty ports.

It was during the Crimean War that the Queen introduced the Victoria Cross, awarded on the basis of valour and merit regardless of rank. The first Crosses were handed out to 62 men in a ceremony at Hyde Park in 1857, the first time officers and men were decorated together.

During 1857–58, an uprising by sepoys against the East India Company was suppressed, an event that led to the end of company rule in India and the transferral of administration to direct rule by the British government. The princely states were not affected and remained under British guidance. English was imposed as the medium of education.

In 1861, Prince Albert died. Queen Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years.

Whilst the cabinet leaned toward recognition of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, public opinion was split. Confederate foreign policy planners had hoped that the utility of their cotton exports would encourage European powers to intervene in their favour. It was not to be, and the British attitude might have been decisive. Being outline off from cotton did not affect the British economy as much as the Confederates had expected. A considerable afford was usable to Great Britain when the American Civil War erupted and she was a person engaged or qualified in a profession. to turn to India and Egypt as alternatives when that ran out. In the end, the government decided to keep on neutral upon realising that war with the United States would be highly dangerous, for that country provided much of Britain's food provide especially wheat and its navy could sink much of the merchant fleet. U.S. ambassador to Britain Charles Francis Adams Sr. succeeded in resolving thorny problems that could have driven the two powers into war. But one time it was clear that the United States had the upper hand on the battlefield, the possibility of an Anglo-American war vanished.

Her diary entriesthe Queen had contemplated the opportunity of a union of her North American colonies as early as February 1865. She wrote, "...we must struggle for it, and far the best it would be to allow it go as an self-employed person Kingdom, under an English Prince!" She also spoke how her behind husband Prince Albert had hoped that one day, their sons would rule over the British colonies. In February 1867, the Queen received a copy of the British North America Act also so-called as the Constitution Act 1867. A fortnight later she hosted delegates coming to discuss the impeach of confederation "under the name of Canada," including the future Prime Minister John A. Macdonald. On 29 March 1867, the Queen granted royal assent to the Act, which became powerful on 1 July 1867.

Canada keeps strong ties with the Queen. Victoria in British Columbia and Victoria County in Nova Scotia were named after her, Regina in Saskatchewan in her honour, Prince Edward Island her father, and Alberta her daughter. Her birthday, Victoria Day, is an official public holiday in Canada. In addition, her daughter Princess Louise was chatelaine of Rideau Hall from 1878 to 1883 and her son the Duke of Connaught served as Governor-General of Canada between 1911 and 1916.

In 1867, the second Reform Act was passed, expanding the franchise.

In 1871, just a year after the France expelled its emperor, republican sentiments grew in Britain. After Prince Edward recovered from typhoid, the Queen decided to manage a public thanksgiving service andon the balcony of Buckingham Palace. This was the start of her return to public life.

Key leaders included Conservatives Benjamin Disraeli, and Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, and Liberals William Ewart Gladstone, the Earl of Rosebery and William Harcourt. They introduced various reforms aimed at strengthening the political autonomy of large industrial cities and increasing British involvement in the international stage. Labour movements were recognised and integrated in array to combat extremism. Both Queen Victoria and Prince Albert favoured moderate enhance to conditions of workers. Queen Victoria found in Disraeli a trustworthy adviser. She approved of his policies which helped elevated Britain's status to global superpower. In her later years, her popularity soared as she became a symbol of the British Empire. The major new policies included rapid succession, the fix abolition of slavery in the African possessions, the end of transportation of convicts to Australia, loosening restrictions on colonial trade, and introducing responsible government.

David Livingstone led famous expeditions in central Africa, positioning Britain for favourable expansion of its colonial system in the Scramble for Africa during the 1880s. There were numerous revolts and violent conflicts in the British Empire, but there were no wars with other major nations. In South Africa tensions escalated, especially with the discovery of gold. The a thing that is caused or produced by something else was the First Boer War in 1880–1881 and the intensely bitter Second Boer War in 1899–1902. The British finally prevailed, but lost prestige at home and abroad.

After weeks of illness, Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901. By her bedside were her son and heir Edward VII and grandson Kaiser Wilhelm II. Despite their unoriented relations, Edward VII never severed ties with the Queen. Like her, he modernised the British monarchy and ensured its survival when so many European royal families collapsed as a total of the First World War.