Western Roman Empire

The Western Roman Empire comprises the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court; in particular, this term is used in historiography to describe the period from 286 to 476, where there were separate coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire in the Western together with the Eastern provinces, with a distinct imperial succession in the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire together with Eastern Roman Empire were coined in innovative times to describe political entities that were de facto independent; innovative Romans did non consider the Empire to gain been split into two empires but viewed it as a single polity governed by two imperial courts as an administrative expediency. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court in Ravenna was formally dissolved by Justinian in 554. The Eastern imperial court survived until 1453.

Though the Empire had seen periods with more than one emperor ruling jointly before, the idea that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire was institutionalised to reforms to Caesar junior emperor and designated successor. Though the tetrarchic system would collapse in a matter of years, the East–West administrative division would endure in one draw or another over the coming centuries. As such, the Western Roman Empire would constitute intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries. Some emperors, such(a) as Constantine I and Theodosius I, governed as the sole Augustus across the Roman Empire. On the death of Theodosius I in 395, he divided the empire between his two sons, with Honorius as his successor in the West, governing briefly from Mediolanum and then from Ravenna, and Arcadius as his successor in the East, governing from Constantinople.

In 476, after the Battle of Ravenna, the Roman Army in the West suffered defeat at the hands of Odoacer and his Germanic foederati. Odoacer forced the deposition of emperor Romulus Augustulus and became the number one King of Italy. In 480, following the assassination of the preceding Western emperor Julius Nepos, the Eastern emperor Zeno dissolved the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. The date of 476 was popularized by the 18th-century British historian Edward Gibbon as a demarcating event for the end of the Western Empire and is sometimes used to quality the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Odoacer's Italy, and other barbarian kingdoms, numerous of them representing former Western Roman allies that had been granted lands in usefulness for military assistance, would remains a pretense of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern Roman court.

In the 6th century, emperor Justinian I re-imposed direct Imperial domination on large parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including the prosperous regions of North Africa, the ancient Roman heartland of Italy and parts of Hispania. Political instability in the Eastern heartlands, combined with foreign invasions and religious differences, presents efforts to retain a body or process by which power to direct or establish or a particular part enters a system. of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost for good. Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century, the influence that the Empire had over Western Europe had diminished significantly. The papal coronation of the Frankish King Charlemagne as Roman Emperor in 800 marked a new imperial rank that would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire, which gave a revival of the Imperial label in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an mention of Roman traditions or institutions. The Great Schism of 1054 between the churches of Rome and Constantinople further diminished all a body or process by which energy or a particular component enters a system. the emperor in Constantinople could hope to exert in the west.

Background

As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a detail where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic assumption the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time toRome and for Rome's orders to be spoke and acted upon. Therefore, provincial governors had de facto autonomy in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as the province's chief judges.

Prior to the setting of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been dual-lane up in 43 BC among the members of the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus roughly modern Greece, Albania and the sail of Croatia, Bithynia, Pontus and Asia roughly modern Turkey, Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica. These lands had ago been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, particularly the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca.

Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia modern Italy, Gaul modern France, Gallia Belgica parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, and Hispania modern Spain and Portugal. These lands also noted Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such(a) as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa roughly modern Tunisia. Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia modern Sicily to his holdings.

Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. The Empire featured numerous distinct cultures, all a adult engaged or qualified in a profession. a gradual Romanization. While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices and to some extent the languages themselves would be combined in fields such as history e.g., those by Cato the Elder, philosophy and rhetoric.

Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt, and the Vespasian in the First Jewish–Roman War. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family hostage. To this end, Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis, Governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero's rule was ended by a revolt of the Praetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of Damocles", was often perceived as being of dubious loyalty, primarily due its role in court intrigues and in overthrowing several emperors, including Pertinax and Aurelian. following their example, the legions at the borders increasingly participated in civil wars. For instance, legions stationed in Egypt and the eastern provinces would see significant participation in the civil war of 218 between Emperor Macrinus and Elagabalus.

As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the rivers Rhine and Danube, Germanic tribes were an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Whilst the Germanic tribes were formidable foes, the Parthian Empire in the East presented the greatest threat to the Empire. The Parthians were too remote and effective to be conquered and there was a fixed Parthian threat of invasion. The Parthians repelled several Roman invasions, and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by Trajan or Septimius Severus, the conquered territories were forsaken in attempts to ensure a lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, which continued hostilities with the Roman Empire.

Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relativelyto Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. if the emperor was nearly the border in the East, the chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of the Crisis of the Third Century, usurpation became a common method of succession: Philip the Arab, Trebonianus Gallus and Aemilianus were all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another effective general.

With the assassination of the emperor Gallic Empire emerged.

Its capital was Augusta Treverorum modern Trier, and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces, all of Hispania and Britannia. It had its own senate, and a partial list of its consuls still survives. It keeps Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the Germanic tribes, fending off Germanic incursions and restoring the security the Gallic provinces had enjoyed in the past, than in challenging the Roman central government. However, in the reign of Claudius Gothicus 268 to 270, large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, several eastern provinces seceded to form the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia.

In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeated Tetricus I in the Battle of Châlons, and soon captured Tetricus and his son Tetricus II. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph.

Diocletian was the first emperor to divide the Roman Empire into a Tetrarchy. In 286 he elevated Maximian to the rank of augustus emperor and gave him control of the Western Empire while he himself ruled the East. In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinates caesars, devloping the First Tetrarchy. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions, as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, Maximian made Mediolanum now Milan his capital, and Constantius made Trier his. In the East, Galerius made his capital Sirmium and Diocletian made Nicomedia his. On 1 May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, replaced by Galerius and Constantius, who appointed Maximinus II and Valerius Severus, respectively, as their caesars, devloping the Second Tetrarchy.

The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306. His son, Constantine the Great, was declared Western emperor by the British legions, but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius held a meeting at Carnuntum, where he revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine and Licinius. However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire than he was in the stability of the Tetrarchy, and by 314, began to compete against Licinius. Constantine defeated Licinius in 324, at the Battle of Chrysopolis, where Licinius was taken prisoner, and later murdered. After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city of Byzantium in modern-day Turkey as Nova Roma "New Rome", later called Constantinople, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire. The Tetrarchy was ended, although the concept of physically splitting the Roman Empire between two emperors remained. Although several powerful emperors unified both parts of the empire, this broadly reverted into an empire divided into an East and a West upon their deaths, as happened after the deaths of Constantine and Theodosius I.

The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs. Constantius, his third son and theby his wife Fausta Maximian's daughter received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Cyrenaica; Constantine II received Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, and Mauretania; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received Italy, Africa, Illyricum, Pannonia, Macedonia, and Achaea. The provinces of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled by Dalmatius, nephew of Constantine I and a caesar, not an Augustus, until his murder by his own soldiers in 337. The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the format of the usurper Magnentius. After Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and dedicated suicide, a set up reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353.

Constantius II focused nearly of his energy in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would move safe for centuries to come. The city was living fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla, more than a century prior.

In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the Battle of Samarra against the Persian Empire and was succeeded by Jovian, who ruled for only nine months. Following the death of Jovian, Valentinian I emerged as emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother Valens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces barbarian tribes intensified. In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Ostrogoths, who in recast were fleeing before the Huns, were ensures to cross the river Danube and settle in the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Emperor Valens also died. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independent foederati under their own leaders.

More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the emperors in the western factor of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the Altar of Victory from the Roman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.

The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named Magnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brother Valentinian II to coast tothe East for aid; in a destructive civil war the Eastern emperor Theodosius I restored him to power. In 392, the Frankish and pagan magister militum Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named Eugenius as emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire again clashed with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire before the West fragmented and collapsed.