History of China

The earliest call written records of a history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty c. 1600–1046 BC, during the king Wu Ding's reign, who was forwarded as the twenty-first King of Shang by the same. Ancient historical texts such as the Book of Documents early chapters, 11th century BC, the Bamboo Annals c. 296 BC & the Records of the Grand Historian c. 91 BC mention and describe a Xia dynasty c. 2070–1600 BC before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period, and Shang writings realise not indicate the existence of the Xia. The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia previously the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is among the world's oldest civilizations and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.

The Zhou dynasty 1046–256 BC supplanted the Shang, and reported the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became self-employed person and fought with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.

In 221 BC, conquered the various warring states and created for himself the label of Huangdi or "People's Republic of China in 1949. The Republic of China retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949. Both the PRC and the ROC currently claim to be the sole legitimate government of China, resulting in an ongoing dispute even after the United Nations recognized the PRC as the government to equal China at any UN conferences in 1971. Hong Kong and Macau transferred sovereignty to China in 1997 and 1999 from the United Kingdom and Portugal respectively, becoming special administrative regions SARs of the PRC.

Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood—the nearly recent being the Chinese Civil War 1927–1949. China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, nearly of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of house kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties gain ruled parts or any of China; in some eras direction stretched as far as Xinjiang, Tibet and Inner Mongolia, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact, form the basis of the sophisticated culture of China.

Ancient China

Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the view of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang.

The Xia dynasty of China from c. 2070 to c. 1600 BC is the earliest of the Three Dynasties listed in ancient historical records such(a) as Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian and Bamboo Annals. The dynasty is broadly considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is commonly associated with the early Bronze Age site at Erlitou that was excavated in Henan in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Eritou or any other contemporaneous site, there is no way to prove if the Xia dynasty ever existed. In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political agency that would non be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts. More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou.

Archaeological evidence, such as oracle bones and bronzes, and transmitted texts attest to the historical existence of the Shang dynasty c. 1600–1046 BC. Findings from the earlier Shang period comes from excavations at ] The findings at Anyang increase the earliest a thing that is said record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the "oracle bones", dating from around 1250 BC.

A series of thirty-one kings reigned over the Shang dynasty. During their reign, according to the Records of the Grand Historian, the capital city was moved six times. Theand most important remain was to Yin in around 1300 BC which led to the dynasty's golden age. The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty.

Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingduia technologically modern civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The main hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper.

The Zhou dynasty 1046 BC to about 256 BC is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its energy declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the unhurried 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the Shang. A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye. They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent kingdoms across the region. Several of these states eventually became more effective than the Zhou kings.

The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven tian ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would leadership China. It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal corporation would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven.

The Zhou established two capitals Xi'an and Chengzhou Luoyang, moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into the Yangtze River valley.

In 771 BC, the Zhou were defeated in the Battle of Mount Li by rebel states and the Quanrong barbarians. A new ruler, King Ping, established himself in Luoyang, beginning themajor phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided up into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period is named after the famous Spring and Autumn Annals. The decline of central power to direct or determine left a vacuum. The Zhou empire now consisted of hundreds of tiny states, some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for hegemony. The more effective states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time. By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them Wu and Yue. numerous new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as Laozi, Confucius and Sun Tzu lived during this chaotic period.

Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling brand and partitioned the state between them.

The Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy began blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture.

After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of the 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other are known as the Warring States period. Though there remained a nominal Zhou king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little real power.

Numerous developments were made during this period in culture and mathematics. Examples add an important literary achievement, the decimal multiplication table, indicating that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.

As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern Sheng and Xian province and county.

The state of Qin became dominant in the last century of this period. Qin conquered the state of Shu in the Chengdu Plain, and eventually drove Chu from its domestic in the Han River valley. Qin copied the administrative reforms of the other states to become a powerhouse. Theexpansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng, the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers enabled him to proclaim himself the First Emperor Qin Shi Huang.