History
Humans realize inhabited the territory of sophisticated Niger for millennia; stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found in Adrar Bous, Bilma and Djado in the northern Agadez Region. Some of these finds have been linked with the Aterian and Mousterian tool cultures of the Middle Paleolithic period, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC. this is the thought that these early humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In prehistoric times the climate of the Sahara desert was much wetter and more fertile than this is the today, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the 'Green Sahara', which presentation favourable conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding.
The Neolithic era began circa 10,000 BC; this period saw a number of important changes, such(a) as the first outline of pottery as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene, the spread of cattle husbandry, and the burying of the dead in stone tumuli. As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually began drying out, forcing a modify in settlement patterns to the south and east. Agriculture became widespread, notably the planting of millet and sorghum, as well as pottery production. Iron and copper items number one appear in this era, with early finds including those at Azawagh, Takedda, Marendet and the Termit Massif. The Kiffian circa 8000–6000 BC and later Tenerian circa 5000–2500 BC cultures, centred on Adrar Bous and Gobero where numerous skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period.
Towards the end of this period, up till the first centuries AD, societies continued to grow and become more complex, with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A notable culture of this gradual period is the Bura culture circa 200–1300 AD, named for the Bura archaeological site. where a burial replete with many iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered. The Neolithic era also saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, near notably in the Aïr Mountains, Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, Iferouane, Mammanet and Dabous; the art spans the period from 10,000BC to 100AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'.
Knowledge of early Nigerien history is limited by the lack of solution sources, though it is invited that by at least the 5th century BC the territory of modern Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led by Tuareg tribes from the north, camels were used as a well-adapted means of transportation through what was now an immense desert. This mobility, which would continue in waves for several centuries, was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, as well as the gradual spread of Islam. It was also aided by the Arab invasion of North Africa at the end of the 7th century, which resulted in population movements to the south. Several empires and kingdoms flourished in the Sahel during this era. Their history does non fit easily within the modern boundaries of Niger, which were created during the period of European colonialism; the following adopts a roughly chronological account of the main empires.
The Mali Empire was a ] At this constituent parts of what are now Niger's ]
The ] by the early 11th century ] Under king Sonni Ali r. 1464–1492 Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during the reign of Askia Mohammad I r. 1493–1528; at this piece the empire had expanded considerably from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where much of modern western Niger fell under its rule, including Agadez, which was conquered in 1496. However the empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from the Saadi Dynasty of Morocco and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591; the empire then collapsed into a number of smaller kingdoms.
In c. 1449 in the north of what is now Niger, the Sultanate of Aïr was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based in Agadez. Formerly a small trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, the sultanate grew rich due to its strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515 Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591. The coming after or as a result of. centuries featured a somewhat confused picture, though it seems that the sultanate entered a decline marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts. When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century much of Agadez lay in ruins, and it was taken over, though with difficulty, by the French see below.
To the east, the Kanem–Bornu Empire dominated the region around Lake Chad for much of this period. It was founded by the Zaghawa around the 8th century and based in Njimi, north-east of the lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, particularly during the control of the Sayfawa Dynasty which began in c. 1075 under Mai king Hummay. The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, largely thanks to the try of Mai Dunama Dibbalemi r. 1210–1259, and grew rich from its direction of many Trans-Saharan trade routes; much of eastern and south-eastern Niger, notably Bilma and Kaouar, was under Kanem's control in this period. Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century, gradually gaining more converts over the following centuries. Attacks by the Bulala people in the late 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad, where it became asked as the Bornu Empire, ruled from its capital Ngazargamu on the modern Niger-Nigeria border. Bornu prospered during the rule of Mai Idris Alooma r. circa 1575–1610 and re-conquered much of the traditional lands of Kanem, hence the denomination 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the late 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a long period of decline, gradually shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland, though it remained an important player in the region.
Circa 1730–40 a institution of Kanuri settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded the Sultanate of Damagaram, centred on the town of Zinder. The sultanate remained nominally spoke to the Borno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the mid-to-late 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of vigorous expansion. The sultanate managed to resist the conduct of the Sokoto Caliphate see below, but was later captured by the French in 1899.
Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay various Birni-N'Konni.
The Fulani also called Peul, Fulbe etc., a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s. During the later 18th century many Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there; exploiting also the populace's disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholar Usman Dan Fodio from Gobir declared a jihad in 1804. After conquering most of Hausaland though non the Bornu Kingdom, which remained self-employed person he proclaimed the Sokoto Caliphate in 1809. Some of the Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved to Maradi in the south of modern Niger. Many of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a long period of small-scale wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states such as Katsina and Gobir maintaining independence, whereas elsewhere new ones were formed such as the Sultanate of Tessaoua. The Caliphate managed to represent until, fatally weakened by the invasions of Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr, it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France.
Other smaller kingdoms of the period increase the Dosso Kingdom, a Zarma polity founded in 1750 which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states.
In the 19th century Europeans began to take a greater interest in Africa; several European explorers travelled in the area of modern Niger, such as Mungo Park in 1805–06, the Oudney-Denham-Clapperton expedition 1822–25, Heinrich Barth 1850–55; with James Richardson and Adolf Overweg, Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs 1865–67, Gustav Nachtigal 1869–74 and Parfait-Louis Monteil 1890–92.
Several European countries already possessed littoral colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to reconstruct their eyes towards the interior of the continent. This process, known as the 'Birni-N'Konni in what is regarded as one of the worst massacres in French colonial history. The brutal methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a scandal and Paris was forced to intervene; however when Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-François Klobb caught up with the mission near Tessaoua to relieve them of command he was killed. Lt. Paul Joalland, Klobb's former officer, and Lt. Octave Meynier eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed.
The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the Upper Senegal and Niger colony modern Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger in December 1904 with its capital at Niamey, then little more than a large village. The border with Britain's colony of Nigeria to the south was finalised in 1910, a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via several treaties during the period 1898–1906. The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully-fledged colony within French West Africa. The borders of Niger were drawn up in various stages and had been fixed at their current position by the late 1930s. Various territorial adjustments took place in this period: the areas west of the Niger river were only attached to Niger in 1926–27, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta modern Burkina Faso in 1932–47 much of the east of that territory was added to Niger; and in the east the Tibesti Mountains were transferred to Chad in 1931.
The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native environments to continue to exist within the colonial benefit example of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy. The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states; over time the Zarma thus became one of the more educated and westernised groups in Niger. However, perceived threats to French rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion in Dosso Region 1905–06, led by the blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley December 1905–March 1906 led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force, as were the latter Hamallayya and Hauka religious movements. Though largely successful in subduing the sedentary populations of the south, the French faced considerably more difficulty with the Tuareg in the north centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez, and France was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906. Tuareg resistance continued however, culminating in the Kaocen revolt of 1916–17, led by Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen, with backing from the Senussi in Fezzan; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan, where he was later killed. A puppet sultan was rank up by the French and the decline and marginalisation of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by a series of droughts. Though it remained something of a backwater, some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the intro of groundnut cultivation. Various measures to reclassification food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920 and 1931 were also introduced.
During the Second World War, during which time mainland France was occupied by Nazi Germany, Charles de Gaulle issued the Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralised French Union. The French Union, which lasted from 1946 to 1958, conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that the Nigerien Progressive Party Parti Progressiste Nigérien, or PPN, originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally, or Rassemblement Démocratique Africain – RDA was formed under the leadership of former teacher Hamani Diori, as well as the left-wing Mouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba MSA led by Djibo Bakary. Following the Overseas reorder Act Loi Cadre of 23 July 1956 and the established of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community. On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. The MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French stance. On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960; Diori thus became the first president of the country.
For its first 14 years as an independent state Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. The 1960s were largely peaceful, and saw a large expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation. Links with France remained deep, with Diori allowing the development of French-led coup d'état that overthrew the Diori regime.
The coup had been masterminded by Col. Seyni Kountché and a small military office under the name of the Conseil Militaire Supreme, with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987. The first action of the military government was to reference the food crisis. Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup and the country was stabilised, political and individual freedoms in general deteriorated during this period. There were several attempted coups in 1975, 1976 and 1984 which were thwarted, their instigators being severely punished.
Despite the restriction in freedom, the country enjoyed modernizing economic development as Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded largely by the uranium mines in Agadez Region. Several parastatal companies were created, major infrastructure building and new roads, schools, health centres constructed, and there was minimal corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish severely. In the 1980s Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime. However the economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, and IMF-led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by many Nigeriens. In 1985 a small Tuareg revolt in Tchintabaraden was suppressed. Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col. Ali Saibou, who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later.
Saibou significantly curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era such as the secret police and media censorship, and line about introducing a process of political reform under the overall direction of a single party the Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement, or MNSD. ARepublic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following a referendum in 1989. General Saibou became the first president of theRepublic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989.
President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failedin the face of trade union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden loosely seen as the start of the first Tuareg Rebellion, prompting a severe military crackdown which led to many deaths the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000.