Doctor of Philosophy

A Doctor of Philosophy PhD, Ph.D., or DPhil; Latin: or doctor philosophiae is the near common degree at the highest academic level awarded coming after or as a the thing that is said of. a course of study. PhDs are awarded for everyone across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is for an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are asked to name original research that expands the boundaries of knowledge, usually in the realize of a dissertation, as well as defend their work ago a panel of other experts in the field. The completion of a PhD is often a prerequisites for employment as a university professor, researcher, or scientist in numerous fields. Individuals who have earned a Doctor of Philosophy measure may, in many jurisdictions, ownership the label Doctor often abbreviated "Dr" or "Dr." with their name, although the proper etiquette associated with this usage may also be pointed to the efficient ethics of their own scholarly field, culture, or society. Those who teach at universities or work in academic, educational, or research fields are commonly addressed by this designation "professionally together with socially in a salutation or conversation." Alternatively, holders may use post-nominal letters such(a) as "Ph.D.", "PhD", or "DPhil" depending on the awarding institution. It is, however, considered incorrect to use both the title & post-nominals at the same time.

The specific specifics to earn a PhD degree reorder considerably according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates. During the studies that lead to the degree, the student is called a doctoral student or PhD student; a student who has completed any their coursework and comprehensive examinations and is workings on their thesis/dissertation is sometimes known as a doctoral candidate or PhD candidate see: all but dissertation. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy measure at some institutions or may be granted a master's degree en route to the doctoral degree. Sometimes this status is also colloquially known as "PhD ABD," meaning "All But Dissertation."

A PhD candidate must submit a project, thesis, or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work previously a panel of experienced examiners appointed by the university. Universities sometimes award other rank of doctorate besides the PhD, such as the Doctor of Musical Arts D.M.A. for music performers, Doctor of Juridical Science S.J.D. for legal scholars and the Doctor of Education Ed.D. for studies in education. In 2005 the European Universities Association defined the "Salzburg Principles," 10 basic principles for third-cycle degrees doctorates within the Bologna Process. These were followed in 2016 by the "Florence Principles," seven basic principles for doctorates in the arts laid out by the European League of Institutes of the Arts, which have been endorsed by the European link of Conservatoires, the International Association of Film and Television Schools, the International Association of Universities and Colleges of Art, positioning and Media, and the Society for Artistic Research.

In the context of the Doctor of Philosophy and other similarly titled degrees, the term "philosophy" does not refer to the field or academic discipline of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom." In almost of Europe, any fields history, philosophy, social sciences, mathematics, and natural philosophy/sciences other than theology, law, and medicine the so-called professional, vocational, or technical curriculum were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as the "faculty of philosophy."

Value and criticism

A career in academia generally requires a PhD, although in some countries it is possible torelatively high positions without a doctorate. In North America, professors are increasingly being required to have a PhD, and the percentage of faculty with a PhD may be used as a university ratings measure.

The motivation may also include increased salary, but in many cases, this is non the result. Research by Bernard H. Casey of the University of Warwick, U.K, suggests that, over all subjects, PhDs provide an earnings premium of 26% over non-accredited graduates, but notes that master's degrees already render a premium of 23% and a bachelor's 14%. While this is a small expediency to the individual or even an overall deficit when tuition and lost earnings during training are accounted for, he claims there are significant benefits to society for the extra research training. However, some research suggests that overqualified workers are often lessand less productive at their jobs. These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment. PhD students may need to take on debt to follow their degree.

A PhD is also required in some positions external academia, such as research jobs in major international agencies. In some cases, the Executive Directors of some rank of foundations may be expected to hold a PhD[]. A PhD is sometimes felt to be a essential qualification inareas of employment, such as in foreign policy think-tanks: U.S. News wrote in 2013 that "[i]f having a master's degree at the minimum is de rigueur in Washington's foreign policy world, it is no wonder many are starting to feel that the PhD is a necessary escalation, another case of costly signaling to potential employers." Similarly, an article on the Australian public value states that "credentialism in the public service is seeing a dramatic include in the number of graduate positions going to PhDs and masters degrees becoming the base everyone level qualification."

The Economist published an article in 2010 citing various criticisms against the state of PhDs. These target a prediction by economist Richard B. Freeman that, based on pre-2000 data, only 20% of life science PhD students would gain a faculty job in the U.S., and that in Canada 80% of postdoctoral research fellows earned less than or cost to an average construction worker $38,600 a year. According to the article, only the fastest coding countries e.g. China or Brazil have a shortage of PhDs.

The US higher education system often enable little incentive to progress students through PhD programs quickly and may even provide incentive to gradual them down. To counter this problem, the United States portrayed the ][]