History
The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors previously the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, defecate evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the developing of science have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be included as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential.
Some historians member to the Scientific Revolution that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It wasn't until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic undergo a change had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession.
spread of Christianity, became closely linked to religious institutions in nearly of European countries. Astrology and astronomy became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the assist of political and religious patronage. By the time of the medieval university system, knowledge was shared up into the trivium—philosophy, including natural philosophy—and the quadrivium—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.
Science in medieval Islam generated some new modes of developing natural knowledge, although still within the bounds of existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, in factor because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern scientific disciplines. Many of these early polymaths were also religious priests and theologians: for example, Alhazen and al-Biruni were mutakallimiin; the physician Avicenna was a hafiz; the physician Ibn al-Nafis was a hafiz, muhaddith and ulema; the botanist Otto Brunfels was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; the astronomer and physician Nicolaus Copernicus was a priest. During the Italian Renaissance scientists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Galileo Galilei and Gerolamo Cardano have been considered as the almost recognizable polymaths.
During the Renaissance, Italians made substantial contributions in science. Leonardo da Vinci portrayed significant discoveries in paleontology and anatomy. The Father of modern Science,
flow and infrared radiation, and discovered the greenhouse effect. Girolamo Cardano, Blaise Pascal Pierre de Fermat, Von Neumann, Turing, Khinchin, Markov and Wiener, any mathematicians, made major contributions to science and probability theory, including the ideas late computers, and some of the foundations of statistical mechanics and quantum mechanics. Many mathematically inclined scientists, including Galileo, were also musicians.
There are many compelling stories in medicine and biology, such as the development of ideas about the circulation of blood from Galen to Harvey. Some scholars and historians attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution.
During the age of Enlightenment, Luigi Galvani, the pioneer of the bioelectromagnetics, discovered the animal electricity. He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body. Charges could make frog legs jump even if the legs were no longer attached to a frog. While cutting a frog leg, Galvani's steel scalpel touched a brass hook that was holding the leg in place. The leg twitched. Further experiments confirmed this effect, and Galvani wasthat he was seeing the effects of what he called animal electricity, the life force within the muscles of the frog. At the University of Pavia, Galvani's colleague Alessandro Volta was efficient to reproduce the results, but was sceptical of Galvani's explanation.
Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations have exerted a lasting influence on the medical sciences. He made important contributions to the experimental inspect of bodily functions and animal reproduction.
Francesco Redi discovered that microorganisms can cause disease.
Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were still allocated to as "natural philosophers" or "men of science".
English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833, and it first appeared in print in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences published in the Quarterly Review. Whewell wrote of "an increasing proclivity of separation and dismemberment" in the sciences; while highly particular terms proliferated—chemist, mathematician, naturalist—the broad term "philosopher" was no longer satisfactory to office together those who pursued science, without the caveats of "natural" or "experimental" philosopher. Whewell compared these increasing divisions with Somerville's purpose of "[rendering] a most important improvement to science" "by showing how detached branches have, in the history of science, united by the discovery of general principles." Whewell reported in his review that members of the British connective for the Advancement of Science had been complaining at recent meetings about the lack of a usefulness term for "students of the knowledge of the material world collectively." Alluding to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman proposed that, by analogy with artist, they might form [the word] scientist, and added that there could be no scruple in making free with this term since we already have such words as economist, and atheist—but this was not loosely palatable".
Whewell proposed the word again more seriously and not anonymously in his 1840 The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences:
The terminations ize rather than ise, ism, and ist, are applied to words of any origins: thus we have to pulverize, to colonize, Witticism, Heathenism, Journalist, Tobacconist. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot usage physician for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a Physicist. We need very much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to so-called him a Scientist. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter, or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist.
He also proposed the term physicist at the same time, as a counterpart to the French word physicien. Neither term gained wide acceptance until decades later; scientist became a common term in the late 19th century in the United States and around the make different of the 20th century in Great Britain. By the twentieth century, the modern idea of science as a special sort of information about the world, practiced by a distinct multinational and pursued through a unique method, was essentially in place.
Marie Curie became the first female to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear power and Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols.