History
John Wycliffe questioned the privileged status of the clergy which had bolstered their effective role in England and the luxury and pomp of local parishes and their ceremonies. He was accordingly characterised as the "evening star" of scholasticism and as the morning star or of the English Reformation. In 1374, Catherine of Siena began travelling with her followers throughout northern and central Italy advocating undergo a change of the clergy and advising people that repentance and renewal could be done through "the a thing that is caused or provided by something else love for God." She carried on a long correspondence with Pope Gregory XI, asking him to reform the clergy and the administration of the Papal States. The oldest Protestant churches, such(a) as the Moravian Church, date their origins to Jan Hus John Huss in the early 15th century. As it was led by a Bohemian noble majority, and recognised, for some time, by the Basel Compacts, the Hussite Reformation was Europe's number one "Magisterial Reformation" because the ruling magistrates supported it, unlike the "Radical Reformation", which the state did not support.
Common factors that played a role during the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation refers the rise of the ]
Hus objected to some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church and wanted to good the church in Bohemia and Moravia to earlier practices: liturgy in the Linguistic communication of the people i.e. Czech, having lay people get communion in both kinds bread and wine—that is, in Latin, communio sub utraque specie, married priests, and eliminating indulgences and the concept of purgatory. Some of these, like the ownership of local language as the liturgical language, were approved by the pope as early as in the 9th century.
The leaders of the Roman Catholic Church condemned him at the ]
] In response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses.[]
A number of theologians in the Holy Roman Empire preached reformation ideas in the 1510s, shortly ago or simultaneously with Luther, including Christoph Schappeler in Memmingen as early as 1513.
The Reformation is commonly dated to 31 October 1517 in . In contrast, Reformed areas typically secularised monastic property.[]
Reformers and their opponents made heavy usage of inexpensive pamphlets as alive as vernacular Bibles using the relatively new printing press, so there was swift movement of both ideas and documents. Magdalena Heymair printed pedagogical writings for teaching children Bible stories.
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the sources of Huldrych Zwingli. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which make up among modern day Anabaptists.
After this first stage of the Reformation, following the excommunication of Luther in Decet Romanum Pontificem and the condemnation of his followers by the edicts of the 1521 Diet of Worms, the name and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere.
Although the German Peasants' War of 1524–1525 began as a tax and anti-corruption protest as reflected in the Twelve Articles, its leader Thomas Müntzer gave it a radical Reformation character. It swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities, including the Black Company of Florian Geier, a knight from Giebelstadt who joined the peasants in the general outrage against the Catholic hierarchy. In response to reports about the destruction and violence, Luther condemned the revolt in writings such as Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants; Zwingli and Luther's ally Philipp Melanchthon also did not condone the uprising. Some 100,000 peasants were killed by the end of the war.
The Radical Reformation was the response to what was believed to be the corruption in both the Roman Catholic Church and the Magisterial Reformation. Beginning in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th century, the Radical Reformation developed radical Protestant churches throughout Europe. The term includes Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt, the Zwickau prophets, and Anabaptists like the Hutterites and Mennonites.
In parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority sympathised with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution. Although the surviving proportion of the European population that rebelled against Catholic, Lutheran and Zwinglian churches was small, Radical Reformers wrote profusely and the literature on the Radical Reformation is disproportionately large, partly as a or situation. of the proliferation of the Radical Reformation teachings in the United States.
Despite significant diversity among the early Radical Reformers, some "repeating patterns" emerged among many Anabaptist groups. Many of these patterns were enshrined in the believers' or person baptism, memorial conviction of the Lord's Supper, theory that Scripture is the final control on things of faith and practice, emphasis on the New Testament and the Sermon on the Mount, interpretation of Scripture in community, separation from the world and a two-kingdom theology, pacifism and nonresistance, communal ownership and economic sharing, belief in the freedom of the will, non-swearing of oaths, "yieldedness" Gelassenheit to one's community and to God, the ban i.e., shunning, salvation through divinization Vergöttung and ethical living, and discipleship Nachfolge Christi.
The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press. Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisivein the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe.
By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. Luther strengthened his attacks on Rome by depicting a "good" against "bad" church. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas, although the term propaganda derives from the Catholic Smaller Catechism for parents teaching their children, and his Larger Catechism, for pastors.
Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. Illustrations in the German Bible and in many tracts popularised Luther's ideas. Lucas Cranach the Elder 1472–1553, the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was afriend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.
The coming after or as a result of. supply-side factors have been indicated as causes of the Reformation:
The following demand-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:
A 2020 inspect linked the spread of Protestantism to personal ties to Luther e.g. letter correspondents, visits, former students and trade routes.
In 1517, Luther nailed the Ninety-five theses to the Castle Church door, and without his cognition or prior approval, they were copied and printed across Germany and internationally. Different reformers arose more or less independently of Luther in 1518 for example Andreas Karlstadt, Philip Melanchthon, Erhard Schnepf, Johannes Brenz and Martin Bucer and in 1519 for example Huldrych Zwingli, Nikolaus von Amsdorf, Ulrich von Hutten, and so on.
After the Heidelberg Disputation 1518 where Luther described the Theology of the Cross as opposed to the Theology of Glory and the Leipzig Disputation 1519, the faith issues were brought to the attention of other German theologians throughout the Empire. used to refer to every one of two or more people or things year drew new theologians to embrace the Reformation and participate in the ongoing, European-wide discussion about faith. The pace of the Reformation proved unstoppable by 1520.
The early Reformation in Germany mostly concerns the life of Martin Luther until he was excommunicated by Pope Leo X on 3 January 1521, in the bull Justification by Faith is described in German as the Turmerlebnis. In Table Talk, Luther describes it as a sudden realization. Experts often speak of a slow process of realization between 1514 and 1518.
Reformation ideas and Protestant church services were first introduced in cities, being supported by local citizens and also some nobles. The Reformation did not receive overt state assistance until 1525, although it was only due to the protection of Elector at Wartburg Castle and then returning to Wittenberg. It was more of a movement among the German people between 1517 and 1525, and then also a political one beginning in 1525. Reformer Adolf Clarenbach was burned at the stake near Cologne in 1529.
The first state to formally adopt a ]
Germany was home to the greatest number of Protestant reformers. used to refer to every one of two or more people or things state which turned Protestant had their own reformers who contributed towards the Evangelical faith. In Electoral Saxony the Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony was organised and served as an example for other states, although Luther was not dogmatic on questions of polity.
The Reformation also spread widely throughout Europe, starting with Bohemia, in the Czech lands, and, over the next few decades, to other countries.
Austria followed the same pattern as the Counter-Reformation reversed the trend.
The Hussites were a Christian movement in the Kingdom of Bohemia following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus.
Czech reformer and university professor Jan Hus c. 1369–1415 became the best-known lesson of the Bohemian Reformation and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation.
Jan Hus was declared a heretic and executed—burned at stake—at the Council of Constance in 1415 where he arrived voluntarily to defend his teachings.
This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened Czech national awareness. In 1417, two years after the implementation of Jan Hus, the Czech reformation quickly became the chief force in the country.
Hussites made up the vast majority of the population, forcing the Council of Basel to recognize in 1437 a system of two "religions" for the first time, signing the Compacts of Basel for the kingdom Catholic and Czech Ultraquism a Hussite movement. Bohemia later also elected two Protestant kings George of Poděbrady, Frederick of Palatine.
After Habsburgs took control of the region, the Hussite churches were prohibited and the kingdom partially recatholicised. Even later, Lutheranism gained a substantial following, after being permitted by the Habsburgs with the continued persecution of the Czech native Hussite churches. Many Hussites thus declared themselves Lutherans.
Two churches with Hussite roots are now theand third biggest churches among the largely agnostic peoples: Czech Brethren which gave origin to the international church known as the Moravian Church and the Czechoslovak Hussite Church.
In Switzerland, the teachings of the reformers and especially those of Zwingli and Calvin had a profound effect, despite frequent quarrels between the different branches of the Reformation.
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in the Swiss Confederation under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher who moved to Zürich—the then-leading city state—in 1518, a year after Martin Luther began the Reformation in Germany with his Ninety-five Theses. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, as the recently introduced printing press spread ideas rapidly from place to place, some unresolved differences kept them separate. Long-standing resentment between the German states and the Swiss Confederation led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. Although Zwinglianism does hold uncanny resemblance to Lutheranism it even had its own equivalent of the Ninety-five Theses, called the 67 Conclusions, historians have been unable to prove that Zwingli had any contact with Luther's publications ago 1520, and Zwingli himself supports that he had prevented himself from reading them.
The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw potential in devloping an alliance between Zwingli and Luther, seeing strength in a united Protestant front. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now invited as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its fix failure. The two me could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine. Although Luther preached consubstantiation in the Eucharist over transubstantiation, he believed in the real presence of Christ in the Communion bread. Zwingli, inspired by Dutch theologian Cornelius Hoen, believed that the Communion bread was only interpreter and memorial—Christ was not present. Luther became so angry that he famously carved into the meeting table in chalk Hoc Est Corpus Meum—a Biblical consultation from the Last Supper meaning "This is my body". Zwingli countered this saying that est in that context was the equivalent of the word significat signifies.