Philosophical schools and tendencies
This is a partial list of schools of 19th-century philosophy also asked as late innovative philosophy.
One of the number one philosophers to try to grapple with Kant's philosophy was Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose developing of Kantian metaphysics became a quotation of inspiration for the Romantics. In Wissenschaftslehre, Fichte argues that the self posits itself and is a self-producing and changing process.
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, a student of Fichte, continued to determining many of the same ideas and was also assimilated by the Romantics as something of an official philosopher for their movement. But it was another of Fichte's students, and former roommate of Schelling, who would rise to become the nearly prominent of the post-Kantian idealists: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. His score revealed the increasing importance of historical thinking in German thought.
Arthur Schopenhauer, rejecting Hegel and also materialism, called for a return to Kantian transcendentalism, at the same time adopting atheism and determinism, amongst others. His secular thought became more popular in Europe in thehalf of the 19th century, which coincided with the advents of Darwinism, positivism, Marxism and philological analysis of the Bible.
In thehalf of the 19th century, an even more orthodox return to Kantian thought was espoused by a number of Neo-Kantian philosophers based in two leading locations: the Marburg School and the Baden School. This trend of thought survived into the beginning of the next century, influencing 20th century philosophical movements such(a) as Neopositivism and Phenomenology.
One of the most famous opponents of idealism in the number one half of the German 19th century was Ludwig Feuerbach, who advocated materialism and atheism.
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist approach to normative ethics that holds morally modification actions are those that promote the most human happiness. Jeremy Bentham, who created his description of the opinion in 1829, and John Stuart Mill who submission his in 1861 are considered the founders of utilitarianism, though the basic concept predates either of the two philosophers. Utilitarianism submits as one of the more appealing and compelling approaches to normative ethics.
Developed by history itself as the progression of dialectics in the form of class struggle. From this this is the argued that "the history of any hitherto existing society is the history of classes struggles." According to Marx, this began with the phase of primitive communism hunter-gatherer society, after which the Neolithic Revolution gave way to slave societies, progressing into the feudal society, and then into his present era of the Industrial Revolution, after which he held that the next step was for the proletariat to overthrow the owners of industry and establish a socialist society, which would further develop into a communist society, in which a collection of matters sharing a common features distinctions, money, and the state would have withered from existence entirely.
Marxism had a profound influence on the history of the 20th Century.
Existentialism as a philosophical movement is properly a 20th-century movement, but its major antecedents, Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche wrote long before the rise of existentialism. In the 1840s, academic philosophy in Europe, coming after or as a result of. Hegel, was almost totally divorced from the concerns of individual human life, in favour of pursuing abstract metaphysical systems. Kierkegaard sought to reintroduce to philosophy, in the spirit of Socrates: subjectivity, commitment, faith, and passion, any of which are a element of the human condition.
Like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche saw the moral values of 19th-century Europe disintegrating into nihilism Kierkegaard called it the levelling process. Nietzsche attempted to undermine traditional moral values by exposing its foundations. To that end, he distinguished between master and slave moralities, and claimed that man must reorganize from the meekness and humility of Europe's slave-morality.
Both philosophers are precursors to existentialism, among other ideas, for their importance on the "great man" against the age. Kierkegaard wrote of 19th-century Europe, "Each age has its own characteristic depravity. Ours is perhaps non pleasure or indulgence or sensuality, but rather a dissolute pantheistic contempt for the individual man."
Auguste Comte, the self-professed founder of modern sociology, add forward the abstraction that the rigorous profile of confirmable observations alone ought to represent the realm of human knowledge. He had hoped to ordering the sciences in increasing degrees of complexity from mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and a new discipline called "sociology", which is the examine of the "dynamics and statics of society".
The American philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce and William James developed the pragmatist philosophy in the gradual 19th century. This school of thought holds that the value of an idea is based upon its practicability or utility rather than the extent to which it reflects reality.
The twilight years of the 19th century in Britain saw the rise of British idealism, a revival of interest in the working of Kant and Hegel.
Transcendentalism was rooted in Immanuel Kant's transcendence and German idealism, led by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. The leading belief was in an ideal spiritual state that 'transcends' the physical and empirical and is only realized through the individual's intuition, rather than through the doctrines of established religions.
"Social Darwinism" mentioned to theories that apply the evolutionary concept of natural selection to human society.