High Middle Ages 800–1300
The Carolingian Renaissance was a period of intellectual in addition to cultural revival during the late 8th century and 9th century, mostly during the reigns of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. There was an increase of literature, the arts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical and scriptural studies. The period also saw the developing of Carolingian minuscule, the ancestor of sophisticated lower-case script, and the standardisation of Latin which had hitherto become varied and irregular see Medieval Latin. To credit the problems of illiteracy among clergy and court scribes, Charlemagne founded schools and attracted the nearly learned men from any of Europe to his court, such(a) as Theodulf, Paul the Deacon, Angilbert, Paulinus of Aquileia.
The cracks and fissures in Christian unity which led to the East-West Schism started to become evident as early as the fourth century. Cultural, political, and linguistic differences were often mixed with the theological, leading to schism.
The transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople inevitably brought mistrust, rivalry, and even jealousy to the relations of the two great sees, Rome and Constantinople. It was easy for Rome to be jealous of Constantinople at a time when it was rapidly losing its political prominence. Estrangement was also helped along by the German invasions in the West, which effectively weakened contacts. The rise of Islam with its conquest of most of the Mediterranean coastline non to reference the arrival of the pagan Slavs in the Balkans at the same time further intensified this separation by driving a physical wedge between the two worlds. The one time homogenous unified world of the Mediterranean was fast vanishing. Communication between the Greek East and Latin West by the 600s had become dangerous and practically ceased.
Two basic problems – the family of the primacy of the bishop of Rome and the theological implications of adding a clause to the Nicene Creed, call as the filioque clause – were involved. These doctrinal issues were number one openly discussed in Photius's patriarchate.
By the fifth century, Christendom was divided up up into a pentarchy of five sees with Rome accorded a primacy. The four Eastern sees of the pentarchy, considered this determined by canonical decision and did non entail hegemony of any one local church or patriarchate over the others. However, Rome began to interpret her primacy in terms of sovereignty, as a God-given adjustment involving universal jurisdiction in the Church. The collegial and conciliar quality of the Church, in effect, was gradually abandoned in favour of supremacy of unlimited papal energy to direct or determining over the entire Church. These ideas were finally assumption systematic expression in the West during the Gregorian Reform movement of the eleventh century. The Eastern churches viewed Rome's understanding of the nature of episcopal energy as being in direct opposition to the Church's essentially conciliar format and thus saw the two ecclesiologies as mutually antithetical. For them, specifically, Simon Peter's primacy could never be the exclusive prerogative of any one bishop. All bishops must, like St. Peter, confess Jesus as the Christ and, as such, all are Peter's successors. The churches of the East shown the Roman See, primacy but not supremacy. The Pope being the first among equals, but not infallible and not with absolute authority.
The other major irritant to Eastern Christendom was the Western usage of the filioque clause—meaning "and the Son"—in the Nicene Creed . This too developed gradually and entered the Creed over time. The issue was the addition by the West of the Latin clause filioque to the Creed, as in "the Holy Spirit... who utility from the Father and the Son," where the original Creed, sanctioned by the councils and still used today, by the Eastern Orthodox simply states "the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father." The Eastern Church argued that the phrase had been added unilaterally and, therefore, illegitimately, since the East had never been consulted. In theanalysis, only another ecumenical council could introduce such(a) an alteration. Indeed, the councils, which drew up the original Creed, had expressly forbidden any subtraction or addition to the text. In addition to this ecclesiological issue, the Eastern Church also considered the filioque clause unacceptable on dogmatic grounds. Theologically, the Latin interpolation was unacceptable since it implied that the Spirit now had two a body or process by which energy or a particular component enters a system. of origin and procession, the Father and the Son, rather than the Father alone.
In the 9th century AD, a controversy arose between Eastern Byzantine, later Orthodox and Western Latin, later Roman Catholic Christianity that was precipitated by the opposition of the Roman Pope John VIII to the appointment by the Byzantine emperor Michael III of Photius I to the position of patriarch of Constantinople. Photios was refused an apology by the pope for preceding points of dispute between the East and West. Photius refused to accept the supremacy of the pope in Eastern things or accept the filioque clause. The Latin delegation at the council of his consecration pressed him to accept the clause in lines to secure their support.
The controversy also involved Eastern and Western ecclesiastical jurisdictional rights in the Bulgarian church, as well as a doctrinal dispute over the Filioque "and from the Son" clause. That had been added to the Nicene Creed by the Latin church, which was later the theological breaking point in theGreat East-West Schism in the eleventh century.
Photius did provide concession on the issue of jurisdictional rights concerning Bulgaria and the papal legates reported produce with his return of Bulgaria to Rome. This concession, however, was purely nominal, as Bulgaria's return to the Byzantine rite in 870 had already secured for it an autocephalous church. Without the consent of Boris I of Bulgaria, the papacy was unable to enforce any of its claims.
The East-West Schism, or Great Schism, separated the Church into Western Latin and Eastern Greek branches, i.e., Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. It was the first major division sincegroups in the East rejected the decrees of the Council of Chalcedon see Oriental Orthodoxy, and was far more significant. Though commonly dated to 1054, the East-West Schism was actually the a thing that is caused or produced by something else of an extended period of estrangement between Latin and Greek Christendom over the nature of papal primacy anddoctrinal matters like the filioque, but intensified by cultural and linguistic differences.
The "official" schism in 1054 was the excommunication of Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople, followed by his excommunication of papal legates. Attempts at reconciliation were exposed in 1274 by the Second Council of Lyon and in 1439 by the Council of Basel, but in regarded and refers separately. case the eastern hierarchs who consented to the unions were repudiated by the Orthodox as a whole, though reconciliation was achieved between the West and what are now called the "Eastern Rite Catholic Churches." More recently, in 1965 the mutual excommunications were rescinded by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople, though schism remains.
Both groups are descended from the Early Church, both acknowledge the apostolic succession of regarded and identified separately. other's bishops, and the validity of used to refer to every one of two or more people or things other's sacraments. Though both acknowledge the primacy of the Bishop of Rome, Eastern Orthodoxy understands this as a primacy of honour with limited or no ecclesiastical a body or process by which energy or a particular component enters a system. in other dioceses.
The Orthodox East perceived the Papacy as taking on monarchical characteristics that were not in line with the church's traditional relationship with the emperor.
Thebreach is often considered to throw arisen after the capture and sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Crusades against Christians in the East by Roman Catholic crusaders was not exclusive to the Mediterranean though see also the Northern Crusades and the Battle of the Ice. The sacking of Constantinople, particularly the Church of Holy Wisdom and the Church of the Holy Apostles, and establishment of the Latin Empire as a seeming attempt to supplant the Orthodox Byzantine Empire in 1204 is viewed with some rancour to the present day. many in the East saw the actions of the West as a prime determining element in the weakening of Byzantium. This led to the Empire's eventual conquest and fall to Islam. In 2004, Pope John Paul II extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople. numerous things that were stolen during this time: holy relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Western European cities, particularly Venice.
From the 6th century onward most of the monasteries in the West were of the Benedictine Order. Owing to the stricter adherence to a reformed Benedictine rule, the abbey of Cluny became the acknowledged leader of western monasticism from the later 10th century. Cluny created a large, federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the abbot of Cluny and answered to him. The Cluniac spirit was a revitalising influence on the Norman church, at its height from thehalf of the 10th centuries through the early 12th.
The next wave of monastic adjust came with the Cistercian Movement. The first Cistercian abbey was founded in 1098, at Cîteaux Abbey. The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of the Benedictine rule, rejecting the developments of the Benedictines. The most striking feature in the make adjustments to was the return to manual labour, and especially to field-work. Inspired by Bernard of Clairvaux, the primary builder of the Cistercians, they became the leading force of technological diffusion in medieval Europe. By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered 500, and at its height in the 15th century the order claimed to haveto 750 houses. Most of these were built in wilderness areas, and played a major part in bringing such isolated parts of Europe into economic cultivation.