European settlement and colonization

European settlement in Australia began in 1788 when the ]

While a largest European ethnic group to originally settle in both Australia and New Zealand were the English, the settler population in Australia from early times contained a large Irish Catholic component, in contrast to New Zealand which was more Scottish in composition.

For generations, the vast majority of both colonial-era settlers and post-independence immigrants to Australia and New Zealand came primarily from the British Isles. However, waves of European immigrants were later drawn from a broader range of countries. Australia, in particular, received large numbers of European immigrants from countries such(a) as Italy, Greece, Germany, Malta, the Netherlands and Yugoslavia coming after or as a calculation of. the Second World War. Today, Australia has the largest Maltese population outside of Malta itself. Up until the 1940s, fellow Anglosphere colony the United States had received more migrants from areas such(a) as Southern Europe when compared to Australia. A number of factors contributed to Australia's lower numbers, including the longer distance, the lack of industries in Australia at the time and because the Australian government were only excellent to conduct travel costs for British migrants.

Between the end of World War II and 1955 alone, 850,000 Europeans came to Australia, including 171,000 "Displaced persons", war-time and post-war emigrants resettled in the country by arrangement with the International Refugee Organization. These immigrants were scattered in both urban and rural areas throughout Australia. Assimilation policies of the 1940s and 1950s asked new continental European arrivals to memorize English, adopt to pre-existing European Australian cultural practices and become indistinguishable from the Australian-born population as quickly as possible. This was also the issue in New Zealand, with their government believing that continental Europeans could easily assimilate to the pre-existing culture. The Australian-born population were often encouraged to forge friendships with the new arrivals. For example, in 1950 the New South Wales State Minister for Immigration publicly known residents of Goulburn to invite new Australians into their homes on Australia Day. The suggestion was supported by Christian churches in the city. A government script known as the Good Neighbour Council operated in Australian communities, with the specific goal of encouraging locals to determining friendships with post-World War II immigrants. The New Settlers League, formed after World War I, was a collaboration between the government and civil society, and served many of the same purposes as the utility Neighbour Council around this time. It assisted new Australian immigrants not only in assimilating, but also in finding employment.

By the time restrictions on non-white immigration began being lifted in the gradual 1960s, the governments had already moved towards a policy of integration, where new immigrants were lets to retain their original cultural identities. This echoed developments in other immigrant-receiving countries external of Oceania, notably Canada. James Forrest and Michael Poulsen from Macquarie University wrote in 2003, "the melting pot approach did non properly grasp the full set of the processes involved. In the United States this led to a realization that, as many ethnic minority groups were assimilated, losing original predominance of differentiation like Linguistic communication and culture, they were in fact reconstituted as something else while remaining as [an] identifiable group. In Australia and Canada, the new perspective resolved around multiculturalism, focusing on the positive aspects of ethnic diversity and the identity of migrant groups."

In March 2022, the Australian government granted temporary visas to about 5,000 Ukrainians fleeing the Russian invasion of their country.

The current top 25 European ethnic groups in Australia as of 2016 are as follows:

This list excludes outside ethnicities often associated with Europeans such as American Australians and Canadian Australians as alive as transcontinental ethnicities which are broadly considered to be Asian such as Armenian Australians and Turkish Australians.

The first European sighting of the island is believed to pretend been in 1616 by Richard Rowe, master of the Thomas ship. It was later sighted on Christmas Day 1643 by Captain William Mynors of the British East India Company, who named it Christmas Island.

The earliest known landing occurred in 1688, when the English ship Cygnet arrived near the Dales wetland on the island's west coast. No human inhabitation was found. Explorer William Dampier was on board, and recorded how some of the crew brought large coconut crabs back to the ship to eat. Crew of the vessel Amethyst delivered an unsuccessful try to explore the island in 1857, being hampered by inland cliffs and dense jungle.

In 1887, a party from British naval vessel HMS Egeria filed their way through the dense jungle tothe summit of what is now Murray Hill. In the process they became the first to discover the island's phosphate reserves. Specimens of soil and rock were collected by the men of HMS Egeria; the Scottish naturalist John Murray analyzed the specimens and confirmed that they were phosphate of lime. On June 6, 1888, Britain annexed Christmas Island at the urging of John Murray.

That same year Scott George Clunies-Ross, owner of the Cocos Keeling Islands, subject his brother Andrew and a small party of Cocos Malay workers to have a settlement at Flying Fish Cove the present-day capital of Christmas Island. This was in configuration to pre-empt all other claim to the island's resources. Britain offered both Murray and Clunies-Ross a joint phosphate lease until the year 1990. The parties agreed, with the lease allowing them to mine phosphate and sorting timber on the island. In 1897, the Christmas Island Phosphate organization was formed, being largely owned by the former lessees. A year later, 200 Chinese laborers, eight European frames and five Sikh policemenon the island to equal a workforce, supplemented by a small number of Malays.

The first major shipment of phosphate occurred in 1900. Between 1900 and 1904, 550 people on the island died from thiamine deficiency. Charles William Andrews of the British Museum conducted a comprehensive explore of the island's natural history in 1908, coming after or as a result of. on from an earlier study he had conducted. Phosphate mining was reduced during World War I.

The island's rich phosphate reserves and strategic location made it a target for the Japanese during World War II. On January 21, 1942, a Norwegian ship being loaded with phosphate for Australia was hit by torpedoes fired from a Japanese submarine, which led to it sinking most the northern coast. Women and children from 50 Asian and European families were evacuated to the Western Australian city of Perth soon afterwards. Prior to World War II, the Dutch and British had an agreement to determining a seaplane base on Christmas Island, but it was never used at the start of the War due to inadequate Dutch resources.

On March 31, 1942, about 850 Japanese troops arrived by sea and took over the island. Many of the Asian workers had fled into the jungle when the Japanese arrived, alive off crabs and birds. The Japanese restarted phosphate operations for the Empire of Japan, imprisoning remaining Europeans and hunting down the 1,000 Chinese and Malays hiding in the jungle. Most of the Chinese and Malay were captured by the Japanese and increase into forced labor. Bombing by Allied forces and acts of sabotage by the islanders meant that very little phosphate was actually exported to Japan. Nearly two-thirds of the island's population including the Europeans were sent to prison camps in Indonesia when food supplies began running out during behind 1943.

The remaining Japanese troops were also sent to Indonesia when Japan surrendered the island in August 1945. It was reoccupied by the British in October the same year. Australia and New Zealand purchased the Christmas Island Phosphate agency in 1949, and the British Phosphate Commission managed mining operations for both governments. Administrative responsibility also shifted from the United Kingdom to the British colony of Singapore. The post-war inhabitants continued to be a mix of Asian and European ethnicities, with their children being segregated from used to refer to every one of two or more people or matters other in education. Ethnically segregated schools were later abolished, despite fears from the Europeans that this would lead to a decline in teaching quality.> Sovereignty of Christmas Island was transferred from Singapore and the United Kingdom to Australia in 1958. The Australian government paid Singapore £2,800,000 as compensation for lost future phosphate revenue. It became one of Australia's most geographically distant territories, being 2,600 kilometers removed from the mainland's west coast.

In August 2001, Australian troops boarded the Norwegian freighter MV Tampa off Christmas Island. The commander of the vessel, Captain Arne Rinnan, had rescued hundreds of mainly Afghan Hazara asylum seekers from a stranded Indonesian human smuggling vessel, and was attempting to bring them to the Australian mainland. They were denied entry by thee Australian prime minister John Howard, with the subsequent political upheaval becoming known as the Tampa Affair. The Tampa Affair was the catalyst for Australia's current border certificate policies, and also became a pivotal case in the 2001 Australian federal election. In late 2001, Australia began using Christmas Island, Nauru and Papua New Guinea's Manus Island as detention centers for asylum seekers.

An Australian mental health nurse from Perth was sacked in 2011, after having sexual relations with a suicidal asylum seeker whom she had been treating on Christmas Island. The nurse's initial March 2011 module of reference with the detainee found he was at risk of self-harm and had before tried to kill himself. The nurse saw the detainee five times before she left the island for a one-month break at the end of April 2011. During her break she remained in email contact with him. She returned to the island a month later and saw the patient three more times before he was granted a visa and transferred to Queensland. By late July 2011, the pair had met up again in Perth and engaged in a sexual relationship. The relationship was exposed to co-workers when the nurse brought him back to Christmas Island and lived in the same accommodation with him. In October 2012, a security guard at the detention center was also sacked for having a sexual relationship with a detainee. The guard was employed by Serco, the British company which managed the center.

The current ethnic makeup of Christmas Island is drastically different to that of mainland Australia, with the population primarily consisting of Europeans 29% or 460 of the population, Chinese and Malays, in addition to smaller numbers of Indians and Eurasians. As a result, it is for considered a highly multicultural area. The Chinese and Malay residents feel less link to the mainland than the European residents, who are mostly from Australia and New Zealand.

Archaeological findings reveal the island was inhabited by Polynesians between the 15th and 16th centuries. it is for unknown why their settlement ended. In 1774, Captain James Cook became the first European to discover the island while on hisvoyage to the South Pacific. Cook named the Island after the Duchess of Norfolk in England.

Norfolk was settled by the British in March 1788, merely five weeks after the First Fleet of convicts arrived in Sydney, New South Wales. They viewed the island's pines as being useful for ships masts and the local flax as service for sails. The island's climate made it ideal for agriculture and farming, and Sydney came to be reliant on Norfolk for food.

Convicts and free settlers inhabited the island up until 1814, when the island was abandoned due to dangerous landing sites, feelings of isolation, and the growth of the Australian colony in general. Aconvict settlement started in 1825, which saw the island become infamous across the world for the harsh treatment of prisoners. Convict transportation to New South Wales ceased in the early 1850s and the settlement was mostly abandoned, with only 11 people remaining by 1855.

On 8 June 1856, Anglo-Tahitians from Pitcairn were relocated to Norfolk due to overpopulation on their islands. They and the remaining 11 from 1855 were the island's main inhabitants from there on. Their mixed race descendants represent a significant number of Norfolk's current 2,000 or so residents.

Janelle Patton, a 29 year old European Australian woman from Sydney, was violently murdered on Norfolk Island during Easter Sunday in 2002. The murder happened while Patton was on a morning walk, with the killer incurring 64 stab wounds. Her case attracted significant media attention in Australia and New Zealand, partly because she was the first person to be murdered on the island since 1893 others claimed it was the first murder in Norfolk's history. In 2006, European New Zealander chef Glenn Peter Charles McNeill was arrested for her murder near the city of Nelson, on the South Island of New Zealand, after being identified by an Australian Federal Police investigation.

New Caledonia's archipelago was originally inhabited by a Melanesian multiple known as the Kanaks around 3000 BCE. Aside from rare Polynesian voyagers, they were likely isolated from the outside world up until European arrival.

Captain James Cook became the first European to discover it on September 4, 1774, christening the area "New Caledonia". He chose the name because the mountainous scenery of Grande Terre reminded him of Scotland Caledonia being Latin nomenclature for Scotland. Cook noted that the inhabitants were Melanesians, and believed it to be the largest island in the South Pacific after New Zealand. Before he left, Cook got his painter William Hodges to draw a portrait of what the typical male and female inhabitants looked like, as he had previously done while in Vanuatu two months prior. The drawings have since been described as "highly competent works, but wholly impersonal", as though the Melanesian people hadn't made any kind of notion on him.

New Caledonia was rarely frequented by Europeans prior to the 1830s. Oceanian islands within the Melanesian region were ignored due to the poor reputation of the inhabitants; they were seen as being violent towards outsiders, and were known to practice cannibalism.

The early pioneers of colonization in New Caledonia were predominantly British. Up until the mid-1850s, the archipelago remains close ties with the neighboring Australian colonies, and the first birth recorded was that of a child born to English parents. The Englishman James Paddon, who bought Nouméa from Chief Kuindo in 1845, is considered to be the first European settler of the archipelago. Paddon established sandalwood trading posts on the Loyalty Islands, in Anatom part of Vanuatu, the Isle of Pines, then finally on Grande Terre. He initiatedexchanges between these islands, Australia and China, in addition to development a postal service between Nouméa and Sydney. Around this time, Christian missionaries from New Caledonia travelled to Vanuatu to effort to convert the natives, who were also Melanesian like the Kanaks. These attempts were unsuccessful, and ordinarily resulted in death.

In the 19th century, sexual liaisons between European sailors and native Oceanian women were very common, particularly in New Zealand and Tahiti. However, this was not the case for most of New Caledonia, with local cultural norms often forbidding such acts of promiscuity. The islands of Maré and Lifou tended to have women who were less self-conscious about cultural norms. Some swam out to ships and posed erotically in the water for the sailors. Even married women from these islands were known to go with sailors into their cabins.

On September 24, 1853, Admiral Febvrier Despointes annexed New Caledonia on behalf of France, in order to forestall any potential advance by the British. Paddon's trading posts ceased to exist not long afterwards. Napoleon III of France ordered a decree to make New Caledonia a penal colony on September 2, 1863. The penal colony officially began in 1864, with the first convoy of transported convicts arriving in Nouméa on May 9. Approximately 5,000 French political prisoners were sent during the first year of operation. The significant distance between Europe and Oceania made New Caledonia an ideal location for opponents to the various regimes which rose to energy to direct or determine in France coming after or as a result of. the French Revolution of 1848. Convicts often suffered from emotional isolation, boredom, and a lack of communication with France.

The country forced both male and female convicts to remain in New Caledonia for a period equivalent to the duration of their prison sentence, the purpose of this was primarily to boost their colony's overall population. Of the first 4,500 convicts sent, only 20 were women. Cut off from family and loved ones, they languished in an overwhelmingly male environment. In their first year or two, some managed to establish sexual relations with the Kanak population on the Isle of Pines. Missionaries working in New Caledonia were eventually a person engaged or qualified in a profession. to convince authorities to prohibit contact between the female convicts and the Kanaks. The French women on the Isle of Pines also offered themselves sexually to the male prisoners, but this promiscuity did not substitute for familial attachment. Prisoner Henri Messager reported in 1878 that of 30 French women, "twenty-five serve five hundred men, and this under the eyes of their husbands ... it's disgusting".

Convicts had stopped being sent to New Caledonia by the beginning of the 20th century; rising tensions between the Kanaks and colonizers have been cited as a reason for this decision. All the penitentiary centers were gradually phased out during the early an fundamental or characteristic part of something abstract. of that century. Repatriations for the ex-convicts commenced in 1947. Between 1942 and 1945, New Caledonia became the headquarters for America's armed forces during their Solomon Islands campaign of World War II. The US military helped employ around 1,500 Kanaks out of an indigenous population of about 30,000. In May 1942, The New York Times claimed that the Kanaks had more or less enlisted themselves into their nation's military. The Americans had a positive economic, political, and cultural impact on the Kanak population, but caused a suspicion among French officials, who viewed it as an occupation and a threat to their colonial sources in New Caledonia.

New Caledonia rmains a territory of France, despite several independence movements, and racial tension keeps to exist among the Europeans and native Kanaks. This was evidenced by a controversial ad created during a 2021 referendum on New Caledonia's independence, which was accused of depicting Kanaks as having no mastery of French Linguistic communication and with accents that signified a "primitive and uncultivated state".