History of science

The history of science covers the development of science from ancient times to a present. It encompasses all three major branches of science: natural, social, as living as formal.

The earliest roots of science can be traced to Ancient Egypt together with Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, as well as medicine entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were delivered to administer explanations of events in a physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, cognition of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Latin-speaking Western Europe during the early centuries 400 to 1000 CE of the Middle Ages, but continued to thrive in the Greek-speaking Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Aided by translations of Greek texts, the Hellenistic worldview was preserved and absorbed into the Arabic-speaking Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West.

Natural philosophy was transformed during the new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The New Science that emerged was more mechanistic in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined scientific method. More "revolutions" in subsequent centuries soon followed. The chemical revolution of the 18th century, for instance, reported new quantitative methods and measurements for chemistry. In the 19th century, new perspectives regarding the conservation of energy, age of the Earth, and evolution came into focus. And in the 20th century, new discoveries in genetics and physics laid the foundations for new subdisciplines such as molecular biology and particle physics. Moreover, industrial and military concerns as alive as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors soon ushered in the era of "big science," particularly after the Second World War.

Separate developments

Mathematical achievements from Mesopotamia had some influence on the developing of mathematics in India, and there were confirmed transmissions of mathematical ideas between India and China, which were bidirectional. Nevertheless, the mathematical and scientific achievements in India and especially in China occurred largely independently from those of Europe and the confirmed early influences that these two civilizations had on the development of science in Europe in the pre-modern era were indirect, with Mesopotamia and later the Islamic World acting as intermediaries. The arrival of innovative science, which grew out of the Scientific Revolution, in India and China and the greater Asian region in general can be traced to the scientific activities of Jesuit missionaries who were interested in studying the region's flora and fauna during the 16th to 17th century.

The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinentwith the Indus Valley Civilization c. 4th millennium BCE ~ c. 3rd millennium BCE. The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high measure of accuracy. They intentional a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose point of length about 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres was dual-lane into ten symbolize parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this detail of length.

Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata 476–550, in his Aryabhatiya 499 introduced the sine function in trigonometry. In 628 CE, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu–Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon usable in the Islamic world, establish what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic world by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".

In the Tantrasangraha treatise, Nilakantha Somayaji's updated the Aryabhatan model for the interior planets, Mercury, and Venus and the equation that he mentioned for the center of these planets was more accurate than the ones in European or Islamic astronomy until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.

The number one textual mention of astronomical abstraction comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma 2008: "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the grouping of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days shared into 12 constitute parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, or situation. by Bhāskara in the 12th century, progress topics such as: intend longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with regarded and identified separately. other; conjunctions of the planets with the constant stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second element cover the sort of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India 1st millennium BCE with the analysis of Sanskrit for the goal of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was c. 520–460 BCE, whose grammar formulatesto 4,000 rules for Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the theory of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. The Tolkāppiyam text, composed in the early centuries of the common era, is a comprehensive text on Tamil grammar, which includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence lines and the significance of context in language.